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BY   PROFESSOR  T.    ROGER  SMITH,  F.R.I.B.A. 

AND 

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NO IV  READY. 

By  Professor  T.  ROGER  SMITH  and  JOHN  SLATER,  B.A. 
ARCHITECTURE:  CLASSIC  and  EARLY  CHRISTIAN.     Com- 
prising   the    Egyptian,   Assyrian,    Greek,   Roman,    Byzantine    and    Early   Christian. 
Illustrated  with  upwards  of  200  Engravings,  including  the  Parthenon,  the  Erechtheium, 
the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  the  Colosseum,  the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  &c. 

By  Professor  T.  ROGER  SMITH  and  EDWARD  J.  POYNTER,  R.A. 

ARCHITECTURE  :  GOTHIC  and  RENAISSANCE.  Showing 
the  progress  of  Gothic  Architecture  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain, 
and  of  Renaissance  Architecture  in  the  same  Countries.  Illustrated  with  more  than 
100  Engravings,  including  many  of  the  principal  Cathedrals,  Churches,  Palaces,  and 
Domestic  Buildings  in  England,  and  on  the  Continent. 

By  GEORGE  REDFORD,  F.R.C.S. 

SCULPTURE:  EGYPTIAN,  ASSYRIAN,  GREEK  and  RO- 
MAN. With  160  Illustrations,  including  Examples  of  the  Works  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Greek  Sculptors,  a  Map  of  Ancient  Greece,  and  a  Chronological  List  of  Ancient 
Sculptors  and  their  Works. 

By  EDWARD  J.  POYNTER,  R.A.,  and  PERCY  R,  HEAD,  B.A. 
PAINTING  :  CLASSIC  and  ITALIAN.     Including  Painting  in  Egypt, 

Greece,  Rome,  and  Pompeii;  the  Renaissance  in  Italy;  Schools  of  Florence,  Siena, 
Rome,  Padua,  Venice,  Perugia,  Ferrara,  Parma,  Naples  and  Bologna.  Illustrated 
with  80  Engravings  of  many  of  the  finest  Pictures  of  Italy. 

By  H.  J.  WILMOT-BUXTON,  M.A.,  and  EDWARD  J.  POYNTER,  R.A. 
PAINTING  :    GERMAN,  FLEMISH  and  DUTCH.     Including  an 

Account  of  the  WoiJcs  of  Albrecht  Durer,  Cranach,  and  Holbein ;  Van  Eyck,  Van  der 
Weyden,  and  Memling ;  Rubens,  Snyders,  and  Van  Dyck :  Rembrandt,  Hals,  and 
Jan  Steen ;  Wynants,  Ruisdael,  and  Hobbema ;  Cuyp,  Potter,  and  Berchem ;  Eak- 
huisen.  Van  de  Velde,  Van  Huysum,  and  many  other  celebrated  painters. 

By  H.  J.  WILMOT-BUXTON,  M.A. 
PAINTING  :  ENGLISH  and  AMERICAN.  Including  an  account 
of  the  Earliest  Paintings  known  in  England  ;  the  works  of  Holbein,  Antonio  Moro, 
Lucas  de  Heere,  Zuccaro,  and  Marc  Garrard :  the  Hilliards  and  Olivers  ;  Van  Dyck, 
Leiy,  and  Kneller ;  Hogarth,  Reynolds,  and  Gainsborough  ;  West,  Romney,  and 
Lawrence  :  Constable,  Turner,  and  Wilkie ;  Maclise,  Mulready,  and  Landseer,  and 
many  other  ce  ebrated  painters.  Nearly  ready. 

By  GERARD  SMITH,  Exeter  Coll.  Oxford. 

PAINTING:    SPANISH   and   FRENCH.      Including  the  Works  of 

Ribera,  Zurbaran,  Velazquez,  and  Murillo ;  Poussin,  Claude  Lorrain,  Le  Sueur,  Watteau, 

Chard in.Greuzc,    David,   and  Prud'hon  ;    Ingres,  Vernet,  Delaroche,   and   Delacroix; 

Corot,  Diaz,  and  Millet ;  Courbet,  Regnault,  Troyon,  and  many  other  celebrated  artists. 

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ILLUSTRATED   HANDBOOKS   OF  ART  HISTORY 


ARCHITECTURE 

CLASSIC   AND   EARLY  CHRISTIAN 

BY    T.    ROGER    SMITli,    F.R.I.B.A. 

Professor  of  Architecture,  University  Coll.  London 
AND 

JOHN  SLATER,  B.A.,  F.R.I.B.A. 


ATBIUM  OF  A   ROHAN  MANSION. 


NEW   YORK 

SCRIBNER  AND  WELFORD 

LONDON 

SAMPSON    LOW,    MARSTON,    SEARLE,    &    RIVINGTON 


1882. 


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(p  PEEFACE. 

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en  This  handbook  is  intended  to  give  such  an  outline  of  the 
Architecture  of  the  Ancient  World,  and  of  that  of  Christen- 
dom down  to  the  period  of  the  Crusades,  as,  without 
attempting  to  supply  the  minute  information  required 
by  the  professional  student,  may  give  a  general  idea  of 

^  the  works  of  the  great  building  nations  of  Antiquity 
and  the  Early  Christian  times.  Its  chief  object  has  been 
to  place  information  on  the  subject  within  the  reach  of 
those  persons  of  literary  or  artistic  education  who  desire 
to  become  in  some  degree  acquainted  with  Architecture. 
All  technicalities  which  could  be  dispensed  with  have 
been  accordingly  excluded ;  and  when  it  has  been  un- 
avoidable that  a  technical  word  or  phrase  should  occur, 
an  explanation  has  been  added  either  in  the  text  or  in 
the  glossary ;  but  as  this  volume  and  the  companion  one 
on  Gothic  and  Eenaissance  Architecture  are,  in  effect, 
two  divisions  of  the  same  work,  it  has  not  been  thought 
necessary  to  repeat  in  the  glossary  given  with  this  part 
the  words  explained  in  that  prefixed  to  the  other. 

In  treating  so  very  wide  a  field,  it  has  been  felt  that 
the  chief  prominence  should  be  given  to  that  great 
sequence  of  architectural  styles  which  form  the  links 
of  a  chain  connecting  the  architecture  of  modem  Europe 
with  the  earliest  specimens  of  the  art.     Egypt,  Assyria, 

)  and   Persia   combined   to    furnish    the    foundation  upon 

which  the  splendid  architecture  of  the  Greeks  was  based. 


VIU  PREFACE. 

Roman  architecture  was  founded  on  Greek  models  with  the 
addition  of  Etruscan  construction,  and  was  for  a  time 
universally  prevalent.  The  break-up  of  the  Eoman 
Emjiire  was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  the  Basil  ican, 
the  Byzantine,  and  the  Romanesque  phases  of  Christian 
art ;  and,  later  on,  by  the  Saraceiiic.  These  are  the  styles 
on  which  all  mediaeval  and  modem  European  architecture 
has  been  based,  and  these  accordingly  have  furnished  the 
subjects  to  which  the  reader's  attention  is  chiefly  directed. 
Such  styles  as  those  of  India,  China  and  Japan,  which  lie 
quite  outside  this  series,  are  noticed  much  more  briefly ;  and 
some  matters — such,  for  example,  as  prehistoric  architecture 
— which  in  a  larger  treatise  it  would  have  been  desirable 
to  include,  have  been  entirely  left  out  for  want  of  room. 

In  treating  each  style  the  object  has  not  been  to  men- 
tion every  phase  of  its  development,  still  less  every  build- 
ing, but  rather  to  describe  the  more  prominent  buildings 
with  some  approach  to  completeness.  It  is  true  that 
much  is  left  unnoticed,  for  which  the  student  who  wishes 
to  pursue  the  subject  further  will  have  to  refer  to  the 
writings  specially  devoted  to  the  period  or  country.  But 
it  has  been  possible  to  describe  a  considerable  number  of 
typical  examples,  and  to  do  so  in  such  a  manner  as,  it  is 
hoped,  may  make  some  impression  on  the  reader's  mind. 
Had  notices  of  a  much  greater  number  of  buildings  been 
compressed  into  the  same  space,  each  must  have  been  so 
condensed  that  the  volume,  though  useful  as  a  catalogue 
for  reference,  would  have,  in  all  probability,  become 
uninteresting,  and  consequently  unserviceable  to  the  class 
of  readers  for  whom  it  is  intended. 

As  far  as  possible  mere  matters  of  opinion  have  been 
excluded  from  this  handbook.  A  few  of  the  topics  which 
it  has  been  necessary  to  approach  are  subjects  on  which 


PREFACE.  IX 

high  authorities  still  more  or  less  disagree,  and  it  has 
been  impossible  to  avoid  these  in  every  instance;  but, 
as  far  as  practicable,  controverted  points  have  been  left 
untouched.  Controversy  is  unsuited  to  the  province  of 
such  a  manual  as  this,  in  which  it  is  quite  sufficient  for 
the  authors  to  deal  with  the  ascertained  facts  of  the 
history  which  they  have  to  unfold. 

It  is  not  proposed  here  to  refer  to  the  authorities  for 
the  various  statements  made  in  these  pages,  but  to  this 
rule  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  making  one  exception. 
The  writers  feel  bound  to  acknowledge  how  much 
they,  in  common  with  all  students  of  the  art,  are  in- 
debted to  the  patient  research,  the  profound  learning, 
and  the  admirable  skiU  in  marshalling  facts  displayed 
by  Mr.  Fergusson  in  his  various  writings.  Had  it  been 
possible  to  devote  a  larger  space  to  Eastern  architecture, 
Pagan  and  Mohammedan,  the  indebtedness  to  him,  in  a 
field  where  he  stands  all  but  alone,  must  of  necessity 
have  been  still  greater. 

The  earlier  chapters  of  this  volume  were  chiefly  written 
by  Mr.  Slater,  who  very  kindly  consented  to  assist  in  the 
preparation  of  it ;  but  I  am  of  course,  as  editor,  jointly 
responsible  with  him  for  the  contents.  The  Introduction, 
Chapters  V.  to  VII.,  and  from  Chapter  X.  to  the  end,  have 
been  written  by  myself:  and  if  our  work  shall  in  any 
degree  assist  the  reader  to  understand,  and  stimulate  him 
to  admire,  the  architecture  of  the  far-off  past ;  above  all, 
if  it  enables  him  to  appreciate  our  vast  indebtedness  to 
Greek  art,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  to  the  art  of  other  nations 
who  have  occupied  the  stage  of  the  world,  the  aim  which 
the  writers  have  kept  in  view  will  not  have  been  missed. 

T.  EoGER  Smith. 
University  College,  London. 
May,  1882. 


i'Miiiiin!iiuii{iiiiiiiiMu!iiiniiiiimiii»iiniiiimj;||jjj]m^^ 
ll'lliliilllllllllillliiMlllllllllllllllllllliiilililllliiillilliilH^ 

Frieze  from  Church  at  Dbnkbkdorf. 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

PAOS 

INTRODUCTION 1 

CHAPTER  II. 
EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Pyramids.    Tombs.    Temples.    Analysis  of  Buildings .     .       14 

CHAPTER  III. 
WEST  ASIATIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

Babylonian.    Assyrian.     Persian.    Analysis  of  Buildings  .       43 

CHAPTER  IV. 
ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Hindu.    Chinese  and  Japanese 64 

CHAPTER  V. 
GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. 

Buildings  of  the  Doric  Order 80 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Buildings  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders 102 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  VII. 
GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  (continued)— 

PAGE 

Analysis  of  Greek  Architecture.  The  Plan.  The  Walls.  The 
Roof.  The  Openings.  The  Columns.  The  Ornaments. 
Architectural  Character 117 

CHAPTER  Vlll. 
ETRUSCAN  AND  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Historical  and  General  Sketch 138 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Buildings  of  the  Romans.  Basilicas.  Theatres  and 
Amphitheatres.  Baths  (Thermse).  Bridges  and  Aque- 
ducts. Commemorative  Monuments.  Domestic  Archi- 
tecture       147 

CHAPTER  X. 

Analysis  of  Roman  Architecture.  The  Plan.  The  Walls. 
The  Roofs.  The  Openings.  The  Columns.  The  Orna- 
ments.   Architectural  Character 182 

CHAPTER  XI. 
EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Basilicas  in  Rome  and  Italy 198 

CHAPTER  Xll. 
BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 210 

CHAPTER  Xin. 
ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE 222 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
CHRISTIAN  ROUND-ARCHED  ARCHITECTURE. 

Analysis  of  Basilican,  Byzantine,  and  Romanesque   .     .      .     2^0 

CHAPTER  XV. 
MOHAMMEDAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Egypt,  Syria  and  Palestine,  Sicily  and  Spain,  Persia  and  India    252 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

The  Parthenon  at  Athens,  as  it  was  in  the  time  op  Pericles, 

circa  B.C.  438 Frontispiece 

Atrium  of  a  Boman  Mansion (on  title-page) 

Frieze  from  Church  at  Denkendorf x 

Rock-cut  Tomb  at  Myra,  in  Lycia.    Imitation  of  Timber 

Construction  in  Stone xviii 

The  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli xxiv 

1.  Opening  spanned  by  a  Lintel.    Arch  of  the  Goldsmiths, 

Rome 3 

2.  Opening   spanned   by   a  Semicircular   Arch.     Roman 

Triumphal  Arch  at  Pola 4 

3.  Openings  spanned  by  Pointed  Arches.    Interior  of  St. 

Front,  Perigueux,  France 5 

4.  Temple  op  Zeus  at  Olympia.     Restored  according  to 

Adler 8 

5.  Part  of  the  Exterior  of  the  Colosseum,  Rome     ...  10 

6.  Timber  Architecture.    Church  at  Borgund    ....  12 

7.  An  Egyptian  Cornice 14 

8.  Section  across  the  Great  Pyramid  (op  Cheops  or  Supms)  17 

9.  Ascending  Gallery  in  the  Great  Pyramid      ....  19 

10.  The  Sepulchral  Chamber  in  the  Pyramid  of  Cephren  at 

Gizeh     . , 19 

11.  The  Construction  of  the  Kxng's  Chamber  in  the  Great 

Pyramid 19 

12.  Imitation  of  Timber  Construction  in  Stone,  from  a  Tomb 

AT  Memphis 21 

13.  IsiiTATioN  OF  Timber  Construction  in  Stone,  from  a  Tomb 

AT  Memphis 21 

14.  Plan  and  Section  of  the  Tomb  at  Beni-Hassan    ...  23 

15.  Rock-cut  Fa9ade  of  the  Tomb  at  Bexi-Hassan      ...  24 

16.  Ground-plan  of  the  Temple  at  Karnak 26 

17.  The  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak,  showing  THE  Clerestory  27 

18.  Entrance  to  an  Egyptian  Temple,  showing  the  Pylons.  27 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XUl 

PAGE 

19.  Plan  of  the  Temple  at  Edfou 30 

20.  EXASIPLE  OF  ONE  OF  THE  MaMMISI  AT  EdFOU 30 

21.  Grovnd-plan  op  the  Kock-cut  Temple  at  Ipsamboul  .      .  31 

22.  Section  of  the  Rock-cct  Temple  at  Ipsamboul     ...  31 

23.  Egyptian  Column  with  Lotus  Bud  Capital      ....  33 

24.  Egyptian  Column  with  Lotus  Flower  Capital      ...  33 

25.  Palm  Capital 34 

2(i.  Sculptured  Capital 34 

27.  Isis  Capital  from  Denderah 35 

28.  Fanciful  Colusin  from  painted  Decoration  at  Thebes  .  35 

29.  Crowning  Cornice  and  Bead 36 

30.  Painted  Decoration  from  Thebes 42 

31.  Sculptured  Ornament  at  Nineveh 43 

32.  Palace  at  Khobsabad.     Built  by  King  Sargon  about 

710  B.c 48 

33.  Pavement  from  Khoyunjik 51 

34.  Proto-Ionic  Column  from  Assyrian  Sculpture  ...  53 
S4a.  Pkoto-Ionic  Capital  from  Assyrian  Sculpture  ...  53 
34b.  Proto-Corinthian  Capital  from  Assyrian  Sculpture    .  53 

35.  Tomb  of  Cyrus 54 

35a,  General  Plan  of  the  Buildings  at  Peksepolis  ...  56 

35b.  CoLUiiN  FR03I  Persepolis — East  and  West  Porticoes     .  58 

36.  CoLUJiN  FROM  Persepolis — North  Portico 58 

37.  The  Eock-cut  Tomb  of  Darius 60 

38.  Sculptured  Ornament  at  Allahabad 64 

39.  Dagoba  from  Ceylon 66 

40.  Chaitya  near  Poona 68 

41.  The  Kylas  at  Elloea.    A  Rock-cut  Monument    ...  69 

42.  Plan  of  the  Kylas  at  Ellora 70 

43.  ViMANA  FROM  MaNASAKA 71 

44.  Bracket  Capital 73 

45.  Column  from  Ajunta 73 

46.  Column  from  Ellora 73 

47.  Column  from  Ajunta 73 

48.  A  SMALL  Pagoda 76 

49.  Greek  Honeysuckle  Ornament 80 

50.  Plan  of  a  small  Greek  Temple  in  Antis 82 

50a.  Plan  of  a  small  Greek  Temple 83 

51.  Ancient  Greek  Wall  of  Unwrought  Stone  from  Samo- 

THRACE 86 


XIV  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGB 

52.  Plan  of  the  Teeasurt  of  Atbeus  at  MTCENiE  ....  86 
62a.  Section  of  the  Treasury  op  Atreus  at  Myoen^  ...  86 

53.  Greek  Doric  Capital  from  Selinus 87 

53a.  Greek  Doric  Capital  from  the  Theseum 87 

53b.  Greek  Doric  Capital  from  Samothrace 87 

54.  The  Ruins  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens 89 

55.  Plan  of  the  Parthenon 90 

56.  The  Roof  of  a  Greek  Doric  Temple,  showing  the  Marble 

Tiles 91 

56a.  Section  of  the  Greek  Doric  Temple  at  P^stum.    As 

restored  by  botticher 92 

57.  The  Greek  Doric  Order  from  the  Theseum     ....  93 

58.  Plan  of  a  Greek  Doric  Column 94 

59.  The  Fillets  under  a  Greek  Doric  Capital      ....  94 

60.  Capital  of  a  Greek  Doric  Column  from  MamA,  with 

Coloured  Decoration 95 

61.  Section  of  the  Entablature  of  the  Greek  Doric  Order  96 

62.  Plan,  looking  up,  of  part  op  a  Greek  Doric  Peristyle  .  96 

63.  Details  op  the  Tbiglyph 97 

64.  Details  of  the  Mutules 97 

65.  Elevation  and  Section  of  the  Capital  of  a  Greek  Anta, 

WITH  Coloured  Decoration 99 

66.  Palmette  and  Honeysuckle 102 

67.  Shaft  op  an  Ionic  Column,  showing  the  Flutes    .     .     .  103 

68.  Ionic  Capital.    Front  Elevation 103 

69.  Ionic  Capital.    Side  Elevation 103 

70.  The  Ionic  Order,    From  Priene,  Asia  Minor  ....  105 

71.  The  Ionic  Order.    From  the  Erechtheium,  Athens  .     .  106 

72.  North-west  View  of  the  Erechtheium,  in  the  time  op 

Pericles 107 

73.  Plan  of  the  Erechtheium 108 

74.  Ionic  Base  from  the  Temple  of  the  Wingless  Victory 

(Nike  Apteros) 108 

75.  Ionic  Base  Mouldings  from  Priene 108 

76.  The  Corinthian  Order.    From  the  Monument  op  Lysi- 

crates  AT  Athens Ill 

77.  Corinthian  Capital  from  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates.  112 

78.  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  as  in  the  time  op  Pericles      .  113 

79.  Capital  of  an  Anta  from  Miletus.    Side  View     .     .     .  114 

80.  Restoration  of  the  Greek  Theatre  op  Segesta    .     .     .  115 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XV 

PAGE 

81.  Capital  op  an  Ant  a  from  Miletcs 117 

82.  Greek  Doorway,  showing  Cornice 123 

83.  Greek  Doorway.    Front  View.   (From  the  Erechtheium)  123 

84.  The  Acanthus  Leaf  and  Stalk 128 

85.  The  Acanthus  Leaf 129 

86.  Metope    from    the    Parthenon.     Conflict  between  a 

Centaur  and  one  of  the  Lapith^ 130 

87.  Mosaic  from  the  Temple  of  Zeus,  Olympia 131 

88.  Section  of  the  Portico  op  the  Erechtheium    ....  132 

89.  Plan  op  the  Portico  of  the  Erechtheium,  looking  up    .  132 

90.  Capital  of  Ant^  from  the  Erechtheium 133 

91-96.  Greek  Ornaments  in  Relief 134 

97-104.  Greek  Ornaments  in  Relief 135 

105-110.  Greek  Ornaments  in  Colour 136 

111-113.  Examples  op  Honeysuckle  Ornament 137 

114.  Combination  of  the  Fret,  the  Egg  and  Dart,  the  Bead 

and  Fillet,  and  the  Honeysuckle 137 

116-120.  Examples  op  the  Fret 137 

121.  Elevation    of    an  Etbuscan  Temple    (restored    from 

Descriptions  only) 138 

122.  Sepulchre  at  Corneto 140 

123.  The  Cloaca  Maxima 142 

124.  "  Incantada  "  in  Salonica 147 

125.  The  Ionic  Order  from  the  Temple  of  Fobtuna  Vibilis, 

Rome 148 

126.  Roman- Corinthian  Temple  at  Nimes  (Maison  Carree). 

Probably  of  the  time  of  Hadrian 150 

127.  Ground-plan  op  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli   .     .     .  151 

128.  The  Corinthian  Order  from  the  Temple  op  Vesta  at 

Tivoli 152 

129.  The  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli.    Plan,  looking  up,  and 

Section  of  Part  op  the  Peristyle 153 

130.  Ground-plan  op  the  Basilica  Ulpia,  Rome 155 

131.  Plan  op  the  Colosseum,  Rome 157 

132.  The  Colosseum.    Section  and  Elevation 158 

133.  Plan  of  the  principal  Building,  Baths  of  Caracalla, 

Rome 163 

134.  Interior  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  Rome  ....  165 

135.  The  Pantheon,  Rome.     Gkound-plan 166 

136.  The  Pantheon.     Exterior 167 


XVI  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FAOI 

137.  The  Pantheon.    Intebior 168 

138.  The  Corinthian  Order  from  the  Pantheon      ....  169 

139.  The  Arch  of  Const antine,  Kome 172 

140.  Ground-plan  OF  the  House  OF  Pansa,  PoMPEH  .     .     .     .  176 

141.  Ground-plan  of  the  House  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  PoMPEn  177 

142.  The  Atrium  op  a  Pompeian  House 178 

143.  Wall  Decoration  from  Pompeii 180 

144.  Carving  from  the  Forum  op  Nerva,  Eome 182 

145.  Roman- Corinthian  Capital  and  Base.  From  the  Temple 

OP  Vesta  at  Tivoli 188 

145a.  a  Roman  Composite  Capital 188 

146.  Part  of  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus,  Rome.  Showing  the 

Combination  op  Columns  and  Arched  Openings      .     .  190 

147.  From  the  Ruins  of  the  Forum  op  Nerva,  Rome.   Showing 

the  Use  of  an  Attic  Story 191 

148.  From  the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  Rome.    Showing  a  frag- 

mentary Entablature  at  the  starting  of  part  op  a 

Vault 192 

149.  From  the  Palace  of  Diocletian,  Spalateo.    Showing  an 

Arch  springing  from  a  Colutun      .     .     .     ...     .192 

150.  Mouldings  and  Ornaments  from  various  Roman  Buildings  193 

151.  Roman  Carving.    An  Acanthus  Leaf 194 

152.  The  Egg  and  Dart  Enrichment — Roman 194 

153.  Wall-Decoration  of  (so-called)  Arabesque  Character 

FROM  POMPEn 195 

154.  Decoration  in  Relief  and  Colour  op  the  Vault  op  a 

Tomb  in  the  Via  Latina,  near  Rome 197 

155.  Basilica- Church  of  San  Miniato,  Florence     ....  198 

156.  Interior  op  a  Basilica  at  Pompeii.    Restored,  from 

Descriptions  by  vabious  Authors 200 

156a.  Basilica,  or  Early  Chbistian  Church,  op  Sant'  Agnese 

at  Rome 202 

157.  Sant'  Apollinabe,  Ravenna.    Part  of  the  Arcade  and 

Apse 205 

158.  Apse  of  the  Basilica  of  San  Paolo  Fuori  le  Muba,  Rome  207 
158a.  Frieze  from  the  Monastery  at  Fulda 210 

159.  Church  op  Santa  Sophia  at  Constantinople.    Longi- 

tudinal Section 212 

160.  Plan  of  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna 216 

161.  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna.    Longitudinal  Section  .     .     .  216 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XVll 

PAGE 

162.  Plan  op  St.  Mark's  at  Venice 217 

163.  Sculptured  Ornament  from  the  Golden  Door  of  Jeru- 

salem       219 

164.  Church  at  Tcrmanin  in  Stria 220 

165.  Tower  of  a  Russian  Church 221 

166.  Tower  of  Earl's  Barton  Church 223 

167.  Cathedral  at  Piacenza 225 

168.  Vaults  op  the  excavated  Roman  Baths  in  the  Musee  de 

Cluny,  Paris 227 

169.  Church  of  St.  Sernin,  Toulouse 228 

170.  Nave  Arcade  at  St.  Sernin,  Toulouse 229 

171.  Arches  in  receding  Planes  at  St.  Sernin,  Toulouse  .     .  230 

172.  Norman  Arches  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  Northampton      .  234 

173.  Nave  Arcade,  Peterborough  Cathedral 236 

174.  Decorative  Arcaue  from  Canterbury  Cathedral      .     .  237 

175.  Hedingham  Castle 238 

176.  Interior  of  Hedingham  Castle 239 

177.  Rounded  Arch  of  Church  at  Gelnhausen 240 

178.  Plan  of  the  Church  op  the  Apostles  at  Cologne  .     .     .  241 

179.  Spire  of  Spires  Cathedral 242 

180.  Church  at  Rosheim.     Upper  Portion  of  Fa9ade   .     .     .  244 

181.  Cubic  Capital 246 

182.  Doorway  at  Tind,  Norway 247 

183.  Mouldings  of  Portal  of  St.  James's  Church  at  Koesfeld  248 

184.  Byzantine  Basket-work  Capital  from  San  Michele  in 

Affricisco  at  Ravenna 251 

185.  Arabian  Capital.    From  the  Alhambra 252 

186.  Horse-shoe  Arch 254 

187.  Exterior  of  Santa  Sophia,  Constantinople.     Showing 

THE  Minarets    added  after  its  Conversion  into  a 

Mosque 255 

188.  Alhambra.    Hall  of  the  Abencebrages 257 

189.  Mosque  "  El  Moved  "  at  Cairo 259 

190.  Arabian  Wall  Decoration 260 

191.  Plan  OF  the  Sakhba  Mosque  AT  Jerusalem 261 

192.  Section  of  the  Sakhra  Mosque  at  Jerusalem  ....  262 

193.  Doorway  in  the  Alhambra 264 

194.  Grand  Mosque  at  Delhi^  built  by  Shah  Jehan       .     .     .  267 

195.  Entr-^^nce  to  a  Moorish  Bazaar 269 


Rock-cut  Tomb  at  Mtra,  in  Lycia. 
Imitation  of  Timber  Construdionyn  Stone. 


GLOSSARY. 


Abacus,  a  square  tablet  which  crowns  the  capital  of  the  column. 
Acanthus,  a  plant,  the  foliage  of  which  was  imitated  in  the  ornament 

of  the  Corinthian  capital. 
Agora,  the  place  of  general  assembly  in  a  Greek  city. 
Al*  (Lat  wings),  recesses  opening  out  of  the  atrium  of  a  Roman 

house. 
Alhambra,  the  palatial  fortress  of  Granada  (from  al  hamra — the  red). 
Ambo,  a  fitting  of  early  Christian  churches,  very  similar  to  a  pulpit. 
Amphithkatbe,  a  Roman  place  of  public  entertainment  in  which 

combats  of  gladiators,  &c.,  were  exhibited. 
Ant^,  narrow  piers  used  in  connection  with  columns  in  Greek  archi- 
tecture, for  the  same  purpose  as  pilasters  in  Roman. 
Arabesque,  a  style  of  very  light  ornamental  decoration. 
Archaic,  primitive;  so  ancient  as  to  be  rude,  or  at  least  extremely 

simple. 
Archivolt,  the  series  of  mouldings  which  is  carried  round  an  arch. 
Arena,  the  space  in  the  centre  of  an  amphitheatre  where  the  combats, 

&c.,  took  place. 
Arris,  a  sharp  edge. 
Astragal,  a  small  round  moulding. 
Atrium,  the  main  quadrangle  in  a  Roman  dwelling-house;  also  the 

enclosed  court  in  front  of  an  early  Christian  basilican  church. 

Baptistery,  a  building,  or  addition  to  a  building,  erected  for  the 
purposes  of  celebrating  the  rite  of  Christian  baptism. 

Basement,  the  lowest  story  of  a  building,  applied  also  to  the  lowest 
part  of  an  architectural  design. 

Bas-relief,  a  piece  of  sculpture  in  low  relief. 

Bibd's-beak,  a  moulding  in  Greek  architecture,  used  in  the  capitals  of 
Antse. 


XX  GLOSSARY. 

Byzantine,  tlie  style  of  Christian  architecture  which  had  its  origin 
at  Byzantium  (Constantinople). 

Carceees,  in  the  ancient  racecourses,  goals  and  starting-points. 
Cartouche,  in  Egyptian  buildings,  a  hieroglyphic  signifying  the  name 

of  a  king  or  other  important  person. 
Caryatids,  human  figures  made  to  carry  an  entablature,  in  lieu  of 

columns  in  some  Classic  buildings. 
Cav^ediam,  another  name  for  the  atrium  of  a  Roman  house. 
Cavea,  the  part  of  an  ancient  theatre  occupied  by  the  audience. 
Catetto,  in  Classic  architecture,  a  hollow  moulding. 
Cella,  the  principal,  often  the  only,  apartment  of  a  Greek  or  Roman 

temple. 
Chaitya,  an  Indian  temple,  or  hall  of  assembly. 
Circus,  a  Boman  racecourse. 
Cloaca,  a  sewer  or  drain. 
Columbarium,  literally  a  pigeon-house — a  Bo^an  sepulchre  built  in 

many  compartments. 
Columnar,  made  with  columns. 
CoMPLUViuM,  the  open  space  or  the  middle  of  the  roof  of  a  Roman 

atrium. 
Corona,  in  the  comiceB  of  Greek  and  Boman  architecture,  the  plain 

unmoulded  feature  which  is  supported  by  the  lower  part  of  the 

cornice,  and  on  which  the  crowning  mouldings  rest. 
Cornice,  the  horizontal  series  of  mouldings  crowning   the  top  of  a 

building  or  the  walls  of  a  room. 
Cuneiform,  of  letters  in  Assyrian  inscriptions,  wedge-shaped. 
Cyclopean,  applied  to  masonry  constructed  of  vast  stones,  usually  not 

hewn  or  squared. 
Cyma  (recta,  or  reversa),  a  moulding,  in  Classic  architecture,  of  an  out- 
line partly  convex  and  partly  concave. 

Dagoba,  an  Indian  tomb  of  conical  shape. 

Dentil-band,  in  Classic  architecture,  a  series  of  small  blocks  re- 
sembling square-shaped  teeth. 
DoHus  {Lai.),  a  house,  applied  usually  to  a  detached  residence. 
Dwarf-wall,  a  very  low  wall. 

Echinus,  in  Greek  Doric  architecture,  the  principal  moulding  of  the 

capital  placed  immediately  under  the  abacus. 
Entablature,  the  superstructure — comprising  architrave,  frieze  and 

cornice — above  the  columns  in  Classic  architecture. 


GLOSSARY.  XXI 

EiJTASis,  in  the  shaft  of  a  column,  a  curved  outline. 
Ephebeum,  the  large  hall  in  Roman  baths  in  which  youths  practised 
,   gymnastic  exercises. 

Facia,  in  Classic  architecture,  a  narrow  flat  band  or  face. 

Fauces,  the  passage  from  the  atrium  to  the  peristyle  in  a  Roman 

house. 
Flutes,  the  small  channels  which  run  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  shaft 

of  most  columns  in  Classic  architecture. 
Forum,  the  place  of  general  assembly  in  a  Roman  city,  as  the  Agora 

was  in  a  Greek. 
Fresco,  painting  executed  upon  a  plastered  wall  while  the  plaster  is 

still  wet. 
Fket,  an  ornament  made  up  of  squares  and  L-shaped  lines,  in  use  in 

Greek  architecture. 

Garth,  the  central  space  round  which  a  cloister  is  carried. 

Girder,  a  beam. 

Grouted,  said  of  masonry  or  brickwork,  treated  with  liquid  mortar  to 

fill  up  all  crevices  and  interstices. 
GuTT^,  small  pendent  features  in  Greek  and  Roman  Doric  cornices, 

resembling  rows  of  wooden  pegs. 

Hexastyle,  of  six  columns. 

Honeysuckle  Ornament,  a  decoration   constantly   introduced   into 

Assyrian  and  Greek  architecture,  founded  upon  the  flower  of  the 

honeysuckle. 
Horseshoe  Arch,  an  arch  more  than  a  semicircle,  and  so  wider  above 

than  at  its  springing. 
Hypostyle,  literally  "under  columns,"  but  used  to  mean  tilled  by 

columns. 

iMPLUVitiM,  the  space  into  which  the  rain  fell  in  the  centre  of  the 

atrium  of  a  Roman  house. 
Insula,  a  block  of  building  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  streets,  literally 

an  island. 
Intekcolumniation,  the  space  between  two  columns. 

Keyed,  secured  closely  by  interlocking. 

KiBLA,  the  most  sacred  part  of  a  Mohammedan  mosque. 

Lats,  in  Indian  architecture,  Buddhist  inscribed  pillars. 


XXll  GLOSSARY. 

Mahuisi,  small  Egyptian  temples. 

Mastaba,  the  most  usual  form  of  Egyptian  tomb. 

Mausoleum,  a  magnificent  sepulchral  monument  or  tomb.    From  the 

tomb  erected  to  Mausolus,  by  his  wife  Artemisia,  at  Halicamassus, 

379  B.C. 
Metopes,  literally  faces,  the  square  spaces  between  triglyphs  in  Doric 

architecture;   occasionally  applied  to  the  sculptures  fitted  into 

these  spaces. 
MiNABET,  a  slender  lofty  tower,  a  usual  appendage  of  a  Mohammedan 

mosque. 
Monolith,  of  one  stone. 
Mortise,  a  hollow  in  a  stone  or  timber  to  receive  a  corresponding 

projection. 
Mosque,  a  Mohammedan  place  of  worship. 
McTULE,  a  feature  in  a  Classic  Doric  cornice,  somewhat  resembling 

the  end  of  a  timber  beam. 

Nabthex,  in  an  early  Christian  church,  the  space  nest  the  entrance. 

Obelisk,  a  tapering  stone  pillar,  a  feature  of  Egyptian  architecture. 
Opus  Alexandbinum,  the  mosaic  work  used  for  floors  in  Byzantine 

and  Romanesque  churches. 
OvoLO,  a  moulding,  the  profile  of  which  resembles  the  outline  of  an 

egg,  used  in  Classic  architecture. 

Pendentive,  a  feature    in  Byzantine  and  other  domed  buildings, 

employed  to  enable  a  circular  dome  to  stand  over  a  square  space. 
Pebisttlar,  or  Peeiptekal,  with  columns  all  round. 
Pebistylium,  or  Peristyle,  in  a  Roman  house,  the  inner  courtyard ; 

also  any  space  or  enclosure  with  columns  all  round  it. 
Piscina,  a  small  basin  usually  executed  in  stone  and  placed  within  a 

sculptured  niche,  fixed  at  the  side  of  an  altar  in  a  church,  with  a 

channel  to  convey  away  the  water  poured  into  it. 
PoLYCHROMY,  the  use  of  decorative  colours. 
Precincts,  the  space  round  a  church  or  religious  house,  usually 

enclosed  with  a  wall. 
Pbesbyteby,  the  eastern  part  of  a  church,  the  chancel. 
Pbofile  (of  a  moulding),  the  outline  which  it  would  present  if  cut 

across  at  right  angles  to  its  length. 
Peonaos,  the  front  portion  or  vestibule  to  a  temple. 
Propyl^a,  in  Greek  architecture,  a  grand  portal  or  state  entrance. 


GLOSSABY.  XXm 

Prothtrum,  in  a  Roman  house,  the  porch  or  entrance. 
PsEUDO-PERiPTKRAL,  resembling,  but  not  really  being  peristylar. 
Pylon,  or  Pro-Pylon,  the  portal  or  front  of  an  Egyptian  temple. 

Quadriga,  a  four-horse  chariot. 

Romanesque,  the  style  of  Christian  architecture  which  was  founded  on 

Roman  work. 
Rotunda,  a  building  circular  in  plan. 

Sacristy,  the  part  of  a  church  where  the  treasures  belonging  to  the 

church  are  preserved. 
Shinto  Temples,  temples  (in  Japan)  devoted  to  the  Shinto  religion. 
Span,  the  space  over  which  an  arch  or  a  roof  extends. 
Spina,  the  central  wall  of  a  Roman  racecourse. 
Stilted,  raised,  usually  applied  to  an  arch  when  its  centre  is  above 

the  top  of  the  jambs  from  which  it  springs. 
Struts,  props. 

Stupa,  in  Indian  archifecture,  a  mound  or  tope. 
Stylobate,  a  series  of  steps,  usually  those  leading  up  to  a  Classic 

temple. 

Taas,  a  pagoda. 

Tablinum,  in  a  Roman  house,  the  room  between  the  atrium  and  the 

peristyle. 
Talar,  in  Assyrian  architecture,  an  open  upper  story. 
Tenoned,  fastened  with  a  projection  or  tenon. 
Tesselated,  made  of  small  squares  of  material,  applied  to  coarse  mosaic 

work. 
Tetrastyle,  with  four  columns. 

Therms,  the  great  bathing  establishments  of  the  Romans. 
Topes,  in  Indian  architecture,  artificial  mounds. 
Trabeated,  constructed  with  a  beam  or  beams,  a  term  usually  employed 

in  contrast  to  arches. 
Triclinium,  in  a  Roman  house,  the  dining-room. 
Triglyph,  the  channelled  feature  in  the  frieze  of  the  Doric  order. 
Tumuli,  mounds,  usually  sepulchral. 
Typhonia,  small  Egyptian  temples. 

Velarium,  a  great  awning. 
Vestibule,  the  outer  hall  or  ante-room. 


XXIV 


GLOSSARY. 


Volutes,  in  Classic  architecture,  the  curled  ornaments  of  the  Ionic 

capital. 
YoussoiBS,  the  wedge-shaped  stones  of  which  arches  are  made. 


N.B.  For  the  explanation  of  other  technical  words  found  in  tliis 
volume,  consult  the  Glossary  given  with  the  companion  volume  on 
Gothic  and  Benaissance  Architecture. 


The  Tf.mpi.e  of  Ve^ta  at  Tivoli. 


(Hi 

6 


ANCIENT    ARCHITECTURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


INTRODUCTION. 

AECHITECTURE  may  be  described  as  building  at  its 
best,  and  when  we  talk  of  the  architecture  of  any 
city  or  country  we  mean  its  best,  noblest,  or  most  beautifi^l 
buildings ;  and  we  imply  by  the  use  of  the  word  that  these 
buildings  possess  merits  which  entitle  them  to  rank  as 
works  of  art. 

The  architecture  of  the  civilised  world  can  be  best 
understood  by  considering  the  great  buildings  of  each  im- 
portant nation  separately.  The  features,  ornaments,  and 
even  forms  of  ancient  buildings  differed  just  as  the  speech, 
or  at  any  rate  the  literature,  differed.  Each  nation  wrote 
in  a  different  language,  though  the  books  may  have  been 

B 


2  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

devoted  to  the  same  aims ;  and  precisely  in  the  same  way 
each  nation  built  in  a  style  of  its  own,  even  if  the  build- 
ings may  have  been  similar  in  the  purposes  they  had  to 
serve.  The  division  of  the  subject  into  the  architecture  of 
Egypt,  Greece,  Eome,  &c.,  is  therefore  the  most  natural 
one  to  follow.  ^ 

But  certain  broad  groups,  rising  out  of  peculiarities  of 
a  physical  nature,  either  in  the  buildings  themselves  or 
in  the  conditions  under  which  they  were  erected,  can 
hardly  fail  to  be  suggested  by  a  general  view  of  the 
subject.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  fourfold  division  to 
which  the  reader's  attention  will  now  be  directed. 

All  buildings,  it  will  be  found,  can  be  classed  under  one 
or  other  of  four  great  divisions,  each  distinguished  by  a 
distinct  mode  of  building,  and  each  also  occupying  a 
distinct  place  in  history.  The  first  series  embraces 
the  buildings  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Persians,  and  the 
Greeks,  and  was  brought  to  a  pitch  of  the  highest  per- 
fection in  Greece  during  the  age  of  Pericles.  All  the 
buildings  erected  in  these  countries  during  the  many 
centuries  which  elapsed  from  the  earliest  Egyptian  to  the 
latest  Greek  works,  however  they  may  have  differed  in 
other  respects,  agree  in  this — that  the  openings,  be  they 
doors,  or  be  they  spaces  between  columns,  were  spanned 
by  beams  of  wood  or  lintels  of  stone  (Fig.  1).  Hence 
this  architecture  is  called  architecture  of  the  beam,  or,  in 
more  formal  language,  trabeated  architecture  This  mode 
of  covering  spaces  required  that  in  buildings  of  solid 
masonry,  where  stone  or  marble  lintels  were  employed, 
the  supports  should  not  be  very  far  apart,  and  this 
circumstance  led  to  the  frequent  use  of  rows  of  columns. 
The  architecture  of  this  period  is  accordingly  sometimes 
called   columnar,  but  it  has  no  exclusive   claim  to  the 


^:^c^^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


3^»^«-^ 


^r 


epithet ;    the  column  survived  long  after  the   exclusive 
use   of  the  beam   had   been    superseded,   and   the   term 


Fig.  1.— Opesikg  spanned  by  a  Lintel.    Arch  of  the  Goldsmiths,  Rome. 

columnar    must    accordingly   be    shared   with   buildings 
forming  part  of  the  succeeding  series. 

The  second  great  group  of  buildings  is  that  in  which 
the  semicircular  arch  is  introduced  into  construction,  and 

13   2 


4  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

used  either  together  with  the  beam,  or,  as  mostly  happened, 
instead  of  the  beam,  to  span  the  openings  (Fig.  2).  This 
use  of  the  arch  began  with  the  Assyrians,  and  it  reap- 
peared in  the  works  of  the  early  Etruscans.  The  round- 
arched  series  of  styles  embraces  the  buildings  of  the 
Romans  from  their  earliest  beginnings  to  their  decay ;  it 
also  includes  the  two  great  schools  of  Christian  architec- 


FiG.  2. — Opening  spanned  by  a  Semicibculak  Arch. 

AT   POLA. 


Roman  Triumphal  Abcb 


ture  which  were  founded  by  the  Western  and  the  Eastern 
Church  respectively, — namely,  the  Romanesque,  which, 
originating  in  Rome,  extended  itself  through  Western 
Europe,  and  lasted  till  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  and  the 
Byzantine,  which  spread  from  Constantinople  over  all 
the  countries  in  which  the  Eastern  (or  Greek)  Church 
flourished,  and  which  continues  to  our  own  day. 


f^^ 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  third  group  of  buildings  is  that  in  which  the 
pointed  arch  is  employed  instead  of  the  semicircular  arch 
to  span  the  openings  (Fig.  3).     It  began  with  the  rise  of 


Fig.  3. — Openings  spanned  bt  Pointed  Arches,    Intebiob  of  St.  Frost, 
PfiEiGUECx,  France. 


Mohammedan  architecture  in  the  East,  and  embraces  all 
the  buildings  of  Western  Europe,  from  the  time  of  the 
First  Crusade  to  the  revival  of  art  in  the  fifteenth  century. 


6  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

This  great  series  of  buildings  constitutes  what  is  known 
as  Pointed,  or,  more  commonly,  as  Gothic  architecture. 

The  fourth  group  consists  of  the  buildings  erected 
during  or  since  the  Renaissance  (i.e.  revival)  period,  and 
is  marked  by  a  return  to  the  styles  of  past  ages  or  distant 
countries  for  the  architectural  features  and  ornaments  of 
buildings ;  and  by  that  luxury,  complexity,  and  ostenta- 
tion which,  with  other  qualities,  are  well  comprehended 
under  the  epithet  Modem.  This  group  of  buildings 
forms  what  is  known  as  Renaissance  architecture,  and 
extends  from  the  epoch  of  the  revival  of  letters  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  to  the  present  day. 

The  first  two  of  these  styles — namely,  the  architecture 
of  the  beam,  and  that  of  the  round  arch — are  treated  of  in 
this  little  volume.  They  occupy  those  remote  times  of 
pagan  civilisation  which  may  be  conveniently  included 
under  the  broad  term  Ancient;  and  the  better  known 
work  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans — the  classic  nations — 
and  they  extend  over  the  time  of  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  down  to  the  close  of  that  dreary  period 
not  incorrectly  termed  the  Dark  ages.  Ancient,  Classic, 
and  early  Christian  architecture  is  accordingly  an  appro- 
priate title  for  the  main  subjects  of  this  volume,  though, 
for  the  sake  of  convenience,  some  notices  of  Oriental 
architecture  have  been  added.  Gothic  and  Renaissance 
architecture  form  the  subjects  of  the  companion  volume. 

It  may  excite  surprise  that  what  appears  to  be  so  small 
a  difference  as  that  which  exists  between  a  beam,  a  round 
arch,  or  a  pointed  arch,  should  be  employed  in  order  to 
distinguisli  three  of  the  four  great  divisions.  But  in  reality 
this  is  no  pedantic  or  arbitrary  grouping.  The  mode  in 
which  spaces  or  openings  are  covered  lies  at  the  root  of 
most  of  the  essential  differences  between  styles  of  archi- 


INTRODUCTION.  / 

tecture,  and  the  distinction  thus  drawn  is  one  of  a  real, 
not  of  a  fanciful  nature. 

Every  building  when  reduced  to  its  elements,  as  will 
be  done  in  both  these  volumes,  may  be  considered  as  made 
up  of  its  (1)  floor  or  plan,  (2)  walls,  (8)  roof,  (4)  open- 
ings, (5)  columns,  and  (6)  ornaments,  and  as  marked  by 
its  distinctive  (7)  character,  and  the  student  must  be 
prepared  to  find  that  the  openings  are  by  no  means  the 
least  important  of  these  elements.  In  fact,  the  moment 
the  method  of  covering  openings  was  changed,  it  would 
be  easy  to  show,  did  space  permit,  that  all  the  other 
elements,  except  the  ornaments,  were  directly  aifected  by 
the  change,  and  the  ornaments  indirectly;  and  we  thus 
find  such  a  correspondence  between  this  index  feature  and 
the  entire  structure  as  renders  this  jDrimary  division  a 
scientific  though  a  very  broad  one.  The  contrast  between 
the  trabeated  style  and  the  arched  style  may  be  well 
understood  by  comparing  the  illustration  of  the  Parthe- 
non which  forms  our  frontispiece,  or  that  of  the  great 
temple  of  Zeus  at  01;yTnpia  (Fig.  4),  with  the  exteriur  of 
the  Colosseum  at  Eome  (Fig.  5),  introduced  here  for  the 
purposes  of  this  comparison. 

A  division  of  buildings  into  such  great  series  as  these 
cannot,  however,  supersede  the  more  obvious  historical 
and  geographical  divisions.  The  architecture  of  every 
ancient  country  was  partly  the  growth  of  the  soil, 
i.e.  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  country,  and  the 
materials  found  there,  and  partly  the  outcome  of  the 
national  character  of  its  inhabitants,  and  of  such  influ- 
ences as  race,  colonisation,  commerce,  or  conquest  brought 
to  bear  upon  them.  These  influences  produced  strong 
distinctions  between  the  work  of  different  peoples,  espe- 
cially before  the  era  of  the  Eoman  Empire.     Since  that 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

period  of  universal  dominion  all  buildings  and  styles  have 
been  influenced  more  or  less  by  Roman  art.  We  accord- 
ingly find  the  buildings  of  the  most  ancient  nations 
separated  from  each  other  by  strongly  marked  lines  of 
demarcation,  but  those  since  the  era  of  the  Empire  showing 
a  considerable  resemblance  to  one  another.  The  circum- 
stance that  the  remains  of  those  buildings  only  which 
received  the  greatest  possible  attention  from  their  builders 
have  come  down  to  us  from  any  remote  antiquity,  has 
perhaps  served  to  accentuate  the  differences  between 
different  styles,  for  these  foremost  buildings  were  not 
intended  to  serve  the  same  purpose  in  all  countries. 
Nothing  but  tombs  and  temples  have  survived  in  Egypt. 
Palaces  only  have  been  rescued  from  the  decay  of  Assyrian 
and  Persian  cities ;  and  temples,  theatres,  and  places  of 
public  assembly  are  the  chief,  almost  the  only  remains  of 
architecture  in  Greece. 

A  strong  contrast  between  the  buildings  of  different 
ancient  nations  rises  also  from  the  differing  point  of  view 
for  which  they  were  designed.  Thus,  in  the  tombs  and, 
to  a  large  extent,  the  temples  of  the  Egj'ptians,  we  find 
structures  chiefly  planned  for  internal  effect ;  that  is  to 
say,  intended  to  be  seen  by  those  admitted  to  the  sacred 
precincts,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent  appealing  to  the 
admiration  of  those  outside.  The  buildings  of  the  Greeks, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  chiefly  designed  to  please  those 
who  examined  them  from  without ;  and  though  no  doubt 
some  of  them,  the  theatres  especially,  were  from  their 
very  nature  planned  for  interior  effect,  by  far  the  greatest 
works  which  Greek  art  produced  were  the  exteriors  of 
the  temples. 

The  works  of  the  Eomans,  and,  following  them,  those 
of  almost  all  Western  Christian  nations,  were  designed 


Phi 

1^1 

M^ 

n 

/^L 

r^^^H 

(-/ 

^z^^^^B 

^^^^^^^B^ 

1  ^^H 

— "It 

'T'^^^H 

E 

'-^r\ 

Km^l 

-T^'ll 

-^ 

7-7'^H 

-i-- 

F'i 

iC-B 

""  ^ 

xj^l 

— 

'' 

^■■^ 

r^T^^B 

i! 

Vi— ^^1 

^^ 

^^^'"-^ 

fc^ 

uiiJ^H' 

^ 

^ 

Fig.  6.— Part  op  the  Exterior  of  the  Colosseum,  Rome.    (Now  in  Ruiss.) 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

to  unite  external  and  internal  effect;  but  in  many  cases 
external  was  evidently  most  sought  after,  and,  in  the 
North  of  Europe,  many  expedients — such,  for  example, 
as  towers,  high-pitched  roofs,  and  steeples — were  intro- 
duced into  architecture  with  the  express  intention  of 
increasing  external  effect.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Eastern 
styles,  both  Mohammedan  and  Christian,  especially  when 
practised  in  sunny  climates,  show  in  many  cases  a  com- 
parative disregard  of  external  effect,  and  that  their  archi- 
tects lavished  most  of  their  resources  on  the  interiors  of 
their  buildings. 

Passing  allusions  have  been  made  to  the  influence  of 
climate  on  architecture  ;  and  the  student  whose  attention 
has  been  once  called  to  this  subject  will  find  many 
interesting  traces  of  this  influence  in  the  designs  of 
buildings  erected  in  various  countries.  Where  the  power 
of  the  sun  is  great,  flat  terraced  roofs,  which  help  to  keep 
buildings  cool,  and  thick  walls  are  desirable.  Sufficient 
light  is  admitted  by  small  windows  far  apart.  Over- 
hanging eaves,  or  horizontal  cornices,  are  in  such  a  climate 
the  most  effective  mode  of  obtaining  architectural  effect, 
and  accordingly  in  the  styles  of  all  Southern  peoples 
these  peculiarities  appear.  The  architecture  of  Egypt, 
for  example,  exhibited  them  markedly.  Where  the  sun 
is  still  powerful,  but  not  so  extreme,  the  terraced  roof 
is  generally  replaced  by  a  sloping  roof,  steep  enough  to 
throw  off  water,  and  larger  openings  are  made  for  light 
and  air ;  but  the  horizontal  cornice  still  remains  the  most 
appropriate  means  of  gaining  effects  of  light  and  shade. 
This  description  will  apply  to  the  architecture  of  Italy 
and  Greece.  When,  however,  we  pass  to  Northern  coun- 
tries, where  snow  has  to  be  encountered,  where  light  is 
precious,  and  where  the  sun  is  low  in  the  heavens  for  the 


12 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 


greater  part  of  the  day,  a  complete  change  takes  place. 
Eoofs  become  much  steeper,  so  as  to  throw  off  snow. 
The  horizontal  cornice  is  to  a  large  extent  disused,  but 
the  birttress,  the  turret,  and  other  vertical  features,  from 
which  a  level  sun  will  cast  shadows,  begin  to  appear; 


Fig.  6.— TiMBEtt  Aechitbctdbe.    Chdbch  at  Bobgcnd. 


and  windows  are  made  numerous  and  spacious.  This 
description  applies  to  Gothic  architecture  generally — in 
other  words,  to  the  styles  which  rose  in  Northern  Europe. 
The  influence  of  materials  on  architecture  is  also  worth 
notice.     Where  granite,  which  is  worked  with  difficulty. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

is  tlie  material  oljtainable,  arcliitecture  has  invariably 
been  severe  and  simple;  where  soft  stone  is  obtainable, 
exuberance  of  ornament  makes  its  appearance,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  material  lending  itself  readily  to  the  carver's 
chisel.  Where,  on  the  other  hand,  marble  is  abundant 
and  good,  refinement  is  to  be  met  with,  for  no  other 
building  material  exists  in  which  very  delicate  mouldings 
or  very  slight  or  slender  projections  may  be  employed 
with  the  certainty  that  they  will  be  effective.  Where 
stone  is  scarce,  brick  buildings,  with  many  arches,  roughly 
constructed  cornices  and  pilasters,  and  other  peculiarities 
both  of  structure  and  ornamentation,  make  their  appear- 
ance, as,  for  example,  in  Lombardy  and  North  Germany. 
Where  materials  of  many  colours  abound,  as  is  the  case,  for 
example,  in  the  volcanic  districts  of  France,  polychromy 
is  sought  as  a  means  of  ornamentation.  Lastly,  where 
timber  is  available,  and  stone  and  brick  are  both  scarce, 
the  result  is  an  architecture  of  which  both  the  forms  and 
the  ornamentation  are  entirely  dissimilar  to  those  proper 
to  buildings  of  stone,  marble,  or  brick,  as  may  be  seen  by 
a  glance  at  our  illustration  of  an  early  Scandinavian 
church  built  of  timber  (Fig.  6),  which  presents  forms 
appropriate  to  a  timber  building  as  being  easily  con- 
structed of  wood,  but  which  would  hardly  be  suitable  to 
any  other  material  whatever. 


^/?/ 


Fig.  7. — Egtptias  Coksice. 


CHAPTER  II. 


EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


THE  origin  of  Egyptian  architecture,  like  that  of 
Egyptian  history,  is  lost  in  the  mists  of  antiquity. 
The  remains  of  all,  or  almost  all,  other  styles  of  architecture 
enable  us  to  trace  their  rude  beginnings,  their  development, 
their  gradual  progress  up  to  a  culminating  point,  and 
thence  their  slow  but  certain  decline;  but  the  earliest 
remains  of  the  constructions  of  the  Egyptians  show  their 
skill  as  builders  at  the  height  of  its  perfection,  their  archi- 
tecture highly  developed,  and  their  sculpture  at  its  very 
best,  if  not  indeed  at  the  commencement  of  its  decadence ; 
for  some  of  the  statuary  of  the  age  of  the  Pyramids  was 
never  siirpassed  in  artistic  effect  by  the  work  of  a  later 
era.  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  conceive  of  such  scientific 
skill  as  is  evidenced  in  the  construction  of  the  great  pyra- 
mids, or  such  artistic  power  as  is  displayed  on  the  walls  of 
tombs  of  the  same  date,  or  in  the  statues  found  in  them, 
as  other  than  the  outcome  of  a  vast  accumulation  of  ex- 
perience, the  attainment  of  which  must  imply  the  lapse  of 
very  long  periods  of  time  since  the  nation  which  produced 


EGYPTIAN   DYNASTIES.  15 

such  worts  emerged  from  barbarism.  It  is  natural,  where 
so  remote  an  antiquity  is  in  question,  that  we  should 
feel  a  great  difficulty,  if  not  an  impossibility,  in  fixing 
exact  dates,  but  the  whole  tendency  of  modern  explora- 
tion and  research  is  rather  to  push  back  than  to  advance 
the  dates  of  Egyptian  chronology,  and  it  is  by  no  means 
impossible  that  the  dynasties  of  Manetho,  after  being 
derided  as  apocryphal  for  centuries,  may  in  the  end  be 
accepted  as  substantially  correct.  Manetho  was  an 
Egyptian  priest  living  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  who 
wrote  a  history  of  his  country,  which  he  compiled 
from  the  archives  of  the  temples.  His  work  itself  is 
lost,  but  Josephus  quotes  extracts  from  it,  and  Eusebius 
and  Julius  Africanus  reproduced  his  lists,  in  which  the 
monarchs  of  Egypt  are  grouped  into  thirty-four  dynasties. 
These,  however,  do  not  agree  with  one  another,  and  in 
many  cases  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  them  with  the  records 
displayed  in  the  monuments  themselves. 

The  remains  with  which  we  are  acquainted  indicate 
four  distinct  periods  of  great  architectural  activity  in 
Egyptian  history,  viz. :  (1)  the  period  of  the  fourth 
dynasty,  when  the  Great  Pyramids  were  erected  (pro- 
bably 3500  to  3000  B.C.) ;  (2)  the  period  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty,  to  which  belong  the  remains  at  Beni-Hassan ; 
(3)  the  period  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynas- 
ties, when  Thebes  was  in  its  glory,  which  is  attested  by 
the  ruins  of  Luxor  and  Kaniak ;  and  (4)  the  Ptolemaic 
period,  of  which  there  are  the  remains  at  Denderah, 
Edfou,  and  Philse.  The  monuments  that  remain  are 
almost  exclusively  tombs  and  temples.  The  tombs  are, 
generally  speaking,  all  met  with  on  the  east  or  right 
bank  of  the  Nile :  among  them  must  be  classed  those 
grandest  and   oldest   monuments  of  Egyptian  skill,  the 


16  ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE. 

Pyramids,  which  appear  to  have  been  all  designed  as 
royal  burying-places.  A  large  number  of  pyramids  have 
been  discovered,  but  those  of  Gizeh,  near  Cairo,  are  the 
largest  and  the  best  known,  and  also  probably  the  oldest 
which  can  be  authenticated.*  The  three  largest  pyramids 
are  those  of  Cheops,  Cephren,  and  Mycerinus  at  Gizeh 
(or,  as  the  names  are  more  correctly  written,  Suphis,  Sen- 
suphis,  and  Moscheris  or  Mencheris).  These  monarchs 
all  belonged  to  the  fourth  dynasty,  and  the  most  probable 
date  to  be  assigned  to  them  is  about  3000  B.C.  The  pyra- 
mid of  Suphis  is  the  largest,  and  is  the  one  familiarly 
known  as  the  Great  Pyramid;  it  has  a  square  base,  the 
side  of  which  is  760  feet  long,f  a  height  of  484  feet,  and 
an  area  of  577,600  square  feet.  In  this  pyramid  the  angle 
of  inclination  of  the  sloping  sides  to  the  base  is  51°  51', 
but  in  no  two  pyramids  is  this  angle  the  same.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  these  huge  monuments  were  erected 
each  as  the  tomb  of  an  individual  king,  whose  efforts  were 
directed  towards  making  it  everlasting,  and  the  greatest 
pains  were  taken  to  render  the  access  to  the  burial  chamber 
extremely  hard  to  discover.  This  accounts  for  the  vast 
disproportion  between  the  lavish  amount  of  material  used 
for  the  pyramid  and  the  smallness  of  the  cavity  enclosed 
in  it  (Fig.  8). 

The  material  employed  was  limestone  cased  with  syenite 
(granite  from  Syene),  and  the  internal  passages  were  lined 
with  granite.     The  granite  of  the   casing  has  entirely 

*  Some  Egyptologists  incline  to  the  opinion  that  the  pyramid  of  Saq- 
qara  is  the  moat  ancient,  while  others  think  it  much  more  recent  than 
those  of  Gizeh. 

t  Strictly  speaking,  the  base  is  not  an  exact  square,  the  four  sides 
measuring,  according  to  the  Royal  Engineers,  north,  760  ft.  75  in. ;  south. 
761  ft.  8-5  in. ;  east,  760  ft.  9oin. ;  and  west,  764  ft.  1  in. 


EGYPTIAN   PYRAMIDS. 


17 


disappeared,  but  that  employed  as  linings  is  still  in  its 
place,  and  so  skilfully  worked  that  it  would  not  be  possible 
to  introduce  even  a  sheet  of  paper  between  the  joints. 

The  entrance  D  to  this  pyramid  of  Suphis  was  at  a  height 
of  47  ft.  6  in.  above  the  base,  and,  as  was  almost  invariably 


/'/ 


s;^..««. 


Fig.  8. — Section  across  the  Great  Pyramid  (of  Cheops  or  Scphis). 


the  case,  on  the  north  face ;  from  the  entrance  a  passage 
slopes  downward  at  an  angle  of  26°  27'  to  a  chamber  cut 
in  the  rock  at  a  depth  of  about  90  feet  below  the  base 
of  the  pyramid.  This  chamber  seems  to  have  been  in- 
tended as  a  bUnd,  as  it  was  not  the  place  for  the  deposition 

c 


18  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  the  corpse.  From  the  point  in  the  above  described 
passage — marked  A  on  our  illustration  of  this  pyramid 
— another  gallery  starts  upwards,  till  it  reaches  the 
point  C,  from  which  a  horizontal  passage  leads  to  another 
small  chamber.  This  is  called  the  Queen's  Chamber,  but 
no  reason  has  been  discovered  for  the  name.  From  this 
point  C  the  gallery  continues  upwards  till,  in  the  heart  of 
the  pyramid,  the  Koj^al  Chamber,  B,  is  reached.  The  walls 
of  these  chambers  and  passages  are  lined  with  masonry 
executed  in  the  hardest  stone  (granite),  and  with  an 
accuracy  of  fitting  and  a  truth  of  surface  that  can 
hardly  be  surpassed.  Extreme  care  seems  to  have  been 
taken  to  prevent  the  great  weight  overhead  from  crush- 
ing in  the  galleries  and  the  chamber.  The  gallery  from  C 
upwards  is  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  9,  where  each  layer 
of  stones  projects  slightly  beyond  the  one  underneath  it. 
Fig.  11  is  a  section  of  the  chamber  itself,  and  the  succession 
of  small  chambers  shown  one  above  the  other  was  evi- 
dently formed  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  weight 
of  the  superincumbent  mass.  From  the  point  C  a  narrow 
well  leads  almost  perpendicularly  downwards  to  a  point 
nearly  at  the  bottom  of  the  first-mentioned  gallery ;  and 
the  purpose  to  be  served  by  this  well  was  long  a  subject 
of  debate.  The  probability  is  that,  after  the  corpse  had 
been  placed  in  its  chamber,  the  workmen  completely 
blocked  up  the  passage  from  A  to  C  by  allowing  large 
blocks  of  granite  to  slide  down  it,  these  blocks  having 
been  previously  prepared  and  deposited  in  the  larger 
gallery ;  the  men  then  let  themselves  down  the  well,  and 
by  means  of  the  lower  gallery  made  their  exit  from  the 
pyramid.  The  entrances  to  the  chamber  and  to  the  pyra- 
mid itself  were  formed  by  huge  blocks  of  stone  which 
exactly  fitted  into  grooves  prepared  for  them   with  the 


Fig.    9. — AscE>iui.NG 

Gaixeuy     in     the 

Gbeat  Ptrasiid. 


Fig.  10. — TiiK  SEruLciiUAL 

ChAMBKK  IX  THE  PtRAIIID 

OF  Cephren  at  Gizeh. 


.-.v^^^Sa^'^X 


Fig.  H. — The  Coxstkuctiox  of  the   Kisg's  Chamber  ix  tbu; 
GiiEAT  Pyramid. 

c  2 


20  ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE. 

most  beautiful  mathematical  accuracy.  The  chief  interest 
attaching  to  the  pyramids  lies  in  their  extreme  antiquity, 
and  the  scientific  method  of  their  construction ;  for  their 
effect  upon  the  spectator  is  by  no  means  proportionate  to 
their  immense  mass  and  the  labour  bestowed  upon  them. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  pyramids  are  found  a  large 
number  of  tombs  which  are  suj)posed  to  be  those  of  private 
persons.  Tlieir  form  is  generally  that  of  a  mastaha  or 
truncated  pyramid  with  sloping  walls,  and  their  construc- 
tion is  evidently  copied  from  a  fashion  of  wooden  archi- 
tecture previously  existing.  The  same  idea  of  making  an 
everlasting  habitation  for  the  body  prevailed  as  in  the 
case  of  the  pyramids,  and  stone  was  therefore  the  material 
employed ;  but  the  builders  seem  to  have  desired  to  indulge 
in  a  decorative  style,  and  as  they  were  totally  unable  to 
originate  a  legitimate  stone  architecture,  we  find  carved  in 
stone,  rounded  beams  as  lintels,  grooved  posts,  and — most 
curious  of  all — roofs  that  are  an  almost  exact  copy  of 
the  early  timber  huts  when  unsquared  baulks  of  timber 
were  laid  across  side  by  side  to  form  a  covering.  Figs.  12 
and  13  show  this  kind  of  stone-work,  which  is  peculiar  to 
the  old  dynasties,  and  seems  to  have  had  little  influence 
upon  succeeding  styles. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  these  early  private  tombs  con- 
sists in  the  paintings  with  which  the  walls  are  decorated, 
and  which  vividly  i:)ortray  the  ordinary  every-day  occu- 
pations carried  on  dtiring  his  lifetime  by  the  person  who 
was  destined  to  be  the  inmate  of  the  tomb.  These 
paintings  are  of  immense  value  in  enabling  us  to  form 
an  accurate  idea  of  the  life  of  the  people  at  this  early 
age. 

It  may  possibly  bo  open  to  doubt  whether  the  dignified 
appellation  of  architecture  should  be  applied  to  buildings. 


^//^ 


Fig.  12. — IsiiTATioN"  of  Tisibeb  Coxstkuction  is 
Stone,  from  a  Tomb  at  Memphis. 


^W--^^ 
^ 


Fig.  13.— Imitatiux  ok  Timuek  (Jonstulction  in 
Stone,  froji  a  Tomb  at  Meufhis. 


22  ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE. 

of  the  kind  wo  have  just  been  describing ;  but  when  we 
come  to  the  series  of  remains  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  at 
Beni-Hassan,  in  middle  Egypt,  we  meet  with  the  earliest 
known  examples  of  that  most  interesting  feature  of  all 
subsequent  styles  —  the  column.  Whether  the  idea  of 
columnar  architecture  originated  with  the  necessities  of 
quarrying — square  piers  being  left  at  intervals  to  support 
the  superincumbent  mass  of  rock  as  the  quarry  was  gradu- 
ally driven  in — or  whether  the  earliest  stone  j)ier8  were 
imitations  of  brickwork  or  of  timber  posts,  we  shall  pro- 
bably never  be  able  to  determine  accurately,  though  the 
former  supposition  seems  the  more  likely.  We  have  here 
monuments  of  a  date  1400  years  anterior  to  the  earliest 
known  Greek  examples,  with  splendid  columns,  both 
exterior  and  interior,  which  no  reasonable  person  can 
doubt  are  the  prototypes  of  the  Greek  Doric  order. 
Fig.  14  is  a  plan  with  a  section,  and  Fig.  15  an  exterior 
view,  of  one  of  these  tombs,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  con- 
sisted of  a  portico,  a  chamber  with  its  roof  supported  by 
columns,  and  a  small  space  at  the  farther  end  in  which 
is  formed  the  opening  of  a  sloping  passage  or  well,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  the  vault  for  the  reception  of  the  body 
was  constructed.  The  walls  of  the  large  chamber  are 
lavishly  decorated  with  scenes  of  every-day  life,  and  it 
has  even  been  suggested  that  these  places  were  not  erected 
originally  as  tombs,  but  as  dwelling-places,  which  after 
death  were  appropriated  as  sepulchres. 

The  columns  are  surmounted  by  a  small  square  slab, 
technically  called  an  abacus,  and  heavy  square  beams  or 
architraves  span  the  spaces  between  the  columns,  while 
the  roof  between  the  architraves  has  a  slightly  segmental 
form.  The  tombs  of  the  later  period,  viz.  of  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  dynasties,  are  very  different  from  those  of 


EGYPTIAN   TEMPLES. 


23 


the  twelfth  dynasty,  and  present  few  features  of  archi- 
tectural interest,  though  they  are  remarkable  for  their 
vast  extent  and  the 
variety  of  form  of  their 
various  chamhers  and 
galleries.  They  con- 
sist of  a  series  of 
chambers  excavated  in 
the  rock,  and  it  ap- 
pears certain  that  the 
tomb  was  commenced 
on  the  accession  of  each 
monarch,  and  was 
driven  farther  and 
farther  into  the  rock 
during  the  continuance 
of  his  reign  till  his 
death,  when  all  work 
abruptly  ceased.  All 
the  chambers  are  pro- 
fusely decorated  with 
paintings,  but  of  a  kind 
very  different  from 
those  of  the  earlier 
dynasties.  Instead  of 
depicting  scenes  of  ordi- 
naiy  life,  all  the  paint- 
ings refer  to  the  sup- 
posed life  after  death, 
and  are  thus  of  very 
great  value  as  a  means 
of  determining  the  re- 
ligious opinions  of  the 


Fig.  14. — Plan  and  Section  of  the  Tomb 
AT  Beni-Hassan. 


24 


ANCIEI?T  ARCHITECTURE. 


Egyi)tians  at  this  time.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  tombs  is  that  of  Manephthah  or  Sethi  I.,  at 
Bab-el-Molouk,  and  known  as  Belzoni's  tomb,  as  it  was 
discovered  by  him  ;  from  it  was  taken  the  alabaster  sarco- 
phagus now  in  the  Soane  Museum  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields. 
To  this  relic  a  new  interest  is  given  by  the  announcement, 
while  these  pages  are  passing  through  the  press,  of  the 
discovery  of  the  mummy  of  this  very  Manephthah,  with 
thirty-eight  other  royal  mummies,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Thebes. 


Fig.  15.— Rock-cut  Fa5Ade  of  Tomb  at  Besi-Hassan. 

Of  the  Ptolemaic  period  no  tombs,  except  perhaps  a  few 
at  Alexandria,  are  known  to  exist. 


TEMPLES. 

It  is  verj^  doubtful  whether  any  remains  of  temples  of 
the  time  of  the  fourth  dynasty — i.e.  contemporaneous  with 
the  pyramids — exist.  One,  constructed  on  a  most  extra- 
ordinary plan,  was  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  about 
a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  and  it  was  described  by  Pro- 


EGYPTIAX   TEMPLES.  25 

fessor  Donaldson  at  the  Eoyal  Institute  of  British  Archi- 
tects in  1861,  hut  later  Egyptologists  rather  incline  to 
the  belief  that  this  was  a  tomb  and  not  a  temple,  as  in  one 
of  the  chambers  of  the  interior  a  number  of  compartments 
were  discovered  one  above  the  other  which  were  apparently 
intended  for  the  reception  of  bodies.  This  singular  build- 
ing is  close  to  the  Great  Sphinx ;  its  plan  is  cruciform, 
and  there  are  in  the  interior  a  number  of  rectangular 
piers  of  granite  supporting  very  simple  architraves,  but 
there  are  no  means  of  determining  what  kind  of  roof 
covered  it  in.  The  walls  seem  to  have  been  faced  on  the 
interior  with  polished  slabs  of  granite  or  alabaster,  but  no 
sculpture  or  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  were  found  on  them 
to  explain  the  purpose  of  the  building.  Leaving  this 
building — which  is  of  a  type  quite  unique — out  of  the 
question,  Egyptian  temples  can  be  generally  classed 
under  two  heads :  (1)  the  large  principal  temples,  and  (2) 
the  small  subsidiary  ones  called  Typhonia  or  Mammisi. 
Both  kinds  of  temple  vary  little,  if  at  all,  in  plan  from 
the  time  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  down  to  the  Koman 
dominion. 

The  large  temples  consist  almost  invariably  of  an  entrance 
gate  flanked  on  either  side  by  a  large  mass  of  masonry, 
called  a  pylon,  in  the  shajDe  of  a  truncated  pyramid 
(Fig.  18).  The  axis  of  the  ground-plan  of  these  pylons  is 
frequently  obliquely  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  plan  of  the 
temple  itself;  and  indeed  one  of  the  most  striking  features 
of  Egyptian  temples  is  the  lack  of  regularity  and  sym- 
metry in  their  construction.  The  entrance  gives  access 
to  a  large  courtyard,  generally  ornamented  with  columns  : 
beyond  this,  and  occasionally  approached  by  steps,  is 
another  court,  smaller  than  the  first,  but  much  more 
splendidly  adorned  with  columns  and  colossi ;  beyond  this 


26 


ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE. 


again,  in  the  finest  examples,  occurs  what  is  called  the 
Hypostylo  Ilall,  i.e.  a  hall  with  two  rows  of  lofty  columns 
down  the  centre,  and  at  the  sides  other  rows,  more  or  less 
in  number,  of  lower  columns ;  the  object  of  this  arrange- 
ment being  that  the  central  portion  might  be  lighted  by  a 
kind  of  clerestory  above  the  roof  of  the  side  portions. 
Fig.  17  shows  this  arrangement.  This  hypostyle  haU 
stood  with  its  greatest  length  transverse  to  the  general 
axis  of  the  temple,  so  that  it  was  entered  from  the  side. 
Beyond  it  were  other  chambers,  all  of  small  size,  the 
innermost  being  generally  the  sanc- 
tuary, while  the  others  were  pro- 
bably used  as  residences  by  the 
priests.  Homer's  hundred-gated 
Thebes,  which  was  for  so  long  the 
capital  of  Egypt,  offers  at  Kamak 
and  Luxor  the  finest  remains  of 
temples ;  what  is  left  of  the  former 
evidently  showing  that  it  must 
have  been  one  of  the  most  magni- 
ficent buildings  ever  erected  in 
any  country.  Fig.  16  is  a  plan  of 
the  temple  of  Karnak,  which  was 
about  1200  feet  long  and  348  feet 
wide.  A  is  the  entrance  between 
the  two  enormous  pylons  giving 
access  to  a  large  courtyard,  in 
which  is  a  small  detached  temple, 
and  another  larger  one  breaking 
into  the  courtyard  obliquely.  A 
gateway  between  a  second  pair  of  pylons  admits  to  B,  the 
grand  Hypostylo  Hall,  334  feet  by  1G7  feet.  Beyond  this 
are  additional  gateways  with  pylons,  separated  by  a  sort 


FlO.   16. — GllOt'XD-PLAN    OP  THE 

PaLiVce  at  Kakxak. 


Fig.  17,— The  Htposttle  Hall  at  Karxak,  showkg  the  CLEEESTOKr. 


Fig.  18. — tNTB.\.NCK  TO  AX  Egypti.vx  Temple,  showing  the  Pyloxs. 


28  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  gallery,  C,  in  which  were  two  gigantic  obelisks ;  D,  an- 
other grand  hall,  is  called  the  Hall  of  the  Caryatides,  and 
beyond  is  the  Hall  of  the  eighteen  columns,  through  which 
access  is  gained  to  a  number  of  smaller  halls  grouped  round 
the  central  chamber  E.  Beyond  this  is  a  large  courtyard, 
in  the  centre  of  which  stood  the  original  sanctuary,  which 
has  disappeared  down  to  its  foundations,  nothing  but  some 
broken  shafts  of  columns  remaining.  At  the  extreme  east 
is  another  hall  supported  partly  by  columns  and  partly 
by  square  piers,  and  a  second  series  of  pillared  courts  and 
chambers.  The  pylons  and  buildings  generally  decrease 
in  height  as  we  proceed  from  the  entrance  eastwards. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  building  grew  by  succes- 
sive additions,  each  one  more  magnificent  than  the  last, 
all  being  added  on  the  side  from  which  the  temple  was 
entered,  leaving  the  original  sanctuary  unchanged  and 
undisturbed. 

Besides  the  buildings  shown  on  the  plan  there  were 
many  other  temples  to  the  north,  south,  and  east,  entered 
by  pylons  and  some  of  them  connected  together  by  avenues 
of  sphinxes,  obelisks,  and  colossi,  which  altogether  made 
up  the  most  wonderful  agglomeration  of  buildings  that 
can  be  conceived.  It  must  not  be  imagined  that  this 
temj)le  of  Kamak,  together  with  the  series  of  connected 
temples  is  the  result,  of  one  clearly  conceived  plan ;  on 
the  contrary,  just  as  has  been  frequently  the  case  with 
our  own  cathedrals  and  baronial  halls,  alterations  were 
made  here  and  additions  there  by  successive  kings  one 
after  the  other  without  much  regard  to  connection  or 
congruity,  the  only  feeling  that  probably  influenced  them 
being  that  of  emulation  to  excel  in  size  and  grandeur 
the  erections  of  their  predecessors,  as  the  largest  buildings 
are  almost  always  of  latest  date.     The  original  sanctuary. 


EGYPTIAN   TEMPLES.  29 

or  nucleus  of  the  temple,  was  built  by  Usertesen  I.,  the 
second  or  third  king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  Omenophis, 
the  first  king  of  the  Shepherd  dynasties,  built  a  temple 
round  the  sanctuary,  which  has  disappeared.  Thothmes 
I.  built  the  Hall  of  the  Caryatides  and  commenced  the 
next  Hall  of  the  eighteen  columns,  which  was  finished 
by  Thothmes  II.  Thothmes  III.  built  that  portion  sur- 
rounding the  sanctuary,  and  he  also  built  the  courts  on 
the  extreme  east.  The  pylon  at  C  was  built  by  Omenophis 
III.,  and  formed  the  fa9ade  of  the  temple  before  the 
erection  of  the  grand  hall.  Sethi  I.  built  the  Hypostyle 
Hall,  which  had  probably  been  originated  by  Ehamses  I., 
who  commenced  the  pylon  west  of  it.  Sethi  II.  built  the 
small  detached  temple,  and  Ehamses  III.  the  intersecting 
temple.  The  Bubastites  constructed  the  large  front  court 
by  building  walls  round  it,  and  the  Ptolemies  commenced 
the  huge  western  pylon.  The  colonnade  in  the  centre  of 
the  court  was  erected  by  Tahraka. 

Extensive  remains  of  temples  exist  at  Luxor,  Edfou 
(Fig.  19),  and  Phil^e,  but  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  give 
a  detailed  description  of  them,  as,  if  smaller  in  size,  they 
are  very  similar  in  arrangement  to  those  already  described. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  all  these  large  temples  have  the 
mastaba  form,  i.e.  the  outer  walls  are  not  perpendicular 
on  the  outside,  but  slope  inwards  as  they  rise,  thus  giving 
the  buildings  an  air  of  great  solidity. 

The  Mammisi  exhibit  quite  a  difterent  form  of  temple 
from  those  previously  described,  and  are  generally  found 
in  close  proximity  to  the  large  temples.  They  are 
generally  erected  on  a  raised  terrace,  rectangular  on  plan 
and  nearly  twice  as  long  as  it  was  wide,  approached  by 
a  flight  of  steps  opposite  the  entrance  ;  they  consist  of 
oblong  buildings,   usually   divided   by  a   wall   into   two 


30 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 


chambers,  and  surroimded  on  all  sides  by  a  colonnade 
composed  of  circular  columns  or  square  piers  placed  at 
intervals,  and  the  whole  is  roofed  in.    A  dwarf  wall  is  fre- 


Ffc.  20.— Plan  of  ojte  of  thb 
Mammisi  at  Edfou. 


Fio.  19.— Plax  of  the  Temple  at  Edfou. 


^ 


quently  found  between  the  piers  and  columns,  about  half 
tlie  height  of  the  shaft.  These  temples  differ  from  the  larger 
ones  in  having  their  outer  walls  perpendicular.     Fig.  20 


EGYPTIAN   TEMPLES. 


31 


is  a  plan  of  one  of  these  small  temples,  and  no  one  can 
fail  to  remark  the  striking  likeness  to  some  of  the  Greek 
temples ;  there  can  indeed 
be  little  doubt  that  this 
nation  borrowed  the  peri- 
stylar  form  of  its  temples 
from  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians. 

Although  no  rock-cut 
temples  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Egypt  proper, 
Nubia  is  very  rich  in  such 
remains.  The  arrangement 
of  these  temples  hewn  out 
of  the  rock  is  closely  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  detached 
ones.  Figs.  21  and  22  show 
a  plan  and  section  of  the 


FjG.    21.— ffROUXD-PLAN   OF  THE  EOCK-CDT 

Temple  at  Ipsambocl. 


Fig.  22.— Section  of  the  RocK-crT  Temple  at  Ipsamcoul. 


32  ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE. 

largest  of  the  rock-cut  temples  at  Ipsamboul,  which 
consists  of  two  extensive  courts,  with  smaller  chambers 
beyond,  all  connected  by  galleries.  The  roof  of  the  large 
court  is  supported  by  eight  huge  piers,  the  faces  of  which 
are  sculptured  into  the  form  of  standing  colossi,  and  the 
entrance  is  adorned  by  four  splendid  seated  colossi, 
68  ft.  6  in.  high.  As  was  the  case  with  the  detached 
temples,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  height  of  the 
various  chambers  decreases  towards  the  extremity  of  the 
excavation. 

The  constructional  system  pursued  by  the  Egyptians, 
which  consisted  in  roofing  over  spaces  with  large  horizontal 
blocks  of  stone,  led  of  necessity  to  a  columnar  arrangement 
in  the  interiors,  as  it  was  impossible  to  cover  large  areas 
without  frequent  upright  supports.  Hence  the  column 
became  the  chief  means  of  obtaining  effect,  and  the  varieties 
of  form  which  it  exhibits  are  very  numerous.  The  earliest 
form  is  that  at  Beni-Hassan,  which  has  already  been  noticed 
as  the  prototype  of  the  Doric  order.  Tigs.  23  and  24  are 
views  of  two  columns  of  a  type  more  commonly  employed. 
In  these  the  sculptors  appear  to  have  imitated  as  closely 
as  possible  the  forms  of  the  plant-world  around  them,  as 
is  shown  in  Fig.  23,  which  represents  a  bundle  of  reeds 
or  lotus  stalks,  and  is  the  earliest  type  known  of  the  lotus 
column,  which  was  afterwards  developed  into  a  number  of 
forms,  one  of  which  will  be  observed  on  turning  to  our 
section  of  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Kamak  (Fig.  17),  as 
employed  for  the  lateral  columns.  The  stalks  are  bound 
roimd  with  several  belts,  and  the  capital  is  formed  by 
tlic  slightly  bulging  unopened  bud  of  the  flower,  above 
which  is  a  small  abacus  with  the  architrave  resting  upon 
it:  the  base  is  nothing  but  a  low  circular  plinth.  The 
w^uare  piers  also  have  frequently  a  lotus  bud  carved  on 
them.     At  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  frequently  found 


EGYPTIAN   TEMPLES. 


33 


a  decoration  imitated  from  the  slieatL.  of  leaves  from 
which  the  plant  springs.  As  a  further  development  of 
this  capital  we  have  the  opened  lotus  flower  of  a  very 
graceful  bell-like  shape,  ornamented  with  a  similar  sheath- 
like decoration  to  that  at  the  base  of  the  shaft  (Fig,  24) 
This  decoration  was  originally  painted  only,  not  sculptured, 


-e^^'l^l-Kil 


Plan. 


Fro.  23.— Egyptian  Column 
WITH  Lotus  Bud  Capital. 


Fig.  24. — Egtptian  Column 
WITH  Lotus  Flower  Capital. 


but  at  a  later  period  we  find  these  sheaths  and  buds  worked 
in  stone.  Even  more  graceful  is  the  palm  capital,  which 
also  had  its  leading  lines  of  decoration  painted  on  it  at  first 
(Fig.  25),  and  afterwards  sculptured  (Fig.  26).  At  a  later 
period  of  the  style  we  find  the  plant  forms  abandoned,  and 
capitals  were  formed  of  a  fantastic  combination  of  the  head 

D 


34 


ANCTENT  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  Isis  with  a  pylon  resting  upon  it  (Fig.  27).  Consider- 
able ingenuity  was  exercised  in  adapting  the  capitals  of  the 
columns  to  the  positions  in  which  they  were  placed  :  thus 
•  in  the  hypostyle  halls,  the  lofty  central  row  of  columns 
generally  had  capitals  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  24,  as 
the  light  here  was  sufficient  to  illuminate  thoroughly  the 
underside  of  the  overhanging  hell ;  hut  those  columns 
which  were  farther  removed   from  the  light  had  their 


1  iG.  :;5.— I'ALJi  Capital. 


'FlO.  26.— SCXTLFTUKED  CAPITAL. 


capitals  of  the  unopened  bud  form,  which  was  narrower 
at  the  top  than  at  bottom.  In  one  part  of  the  temjile  at 
Kamak  is  found  a  very  curious  capital  resembling  the 
open  lotus  flower  inverted.  The  proportion  which  the 
height  of  Egyptian  columns  bears  to  their  diameter  differs 
so  much  in  various  cases  that  there  was  evidently  no 
regular  standard  adhered  to,  but  as  a  general  rule  they 
have  a  heavy  and  massive  character.  The  wall-paintings 
of  the  Egyptian  buildings  show  many  curious  forms  of 


EGYPTIAN   TEMPLES. 


35 


columns  (Fig.  28),  but  we  have  no  reason  for  thinking 
that  these  fantastic  shapes  were  really  executed  in  stone. 

Almost  the  only  scialptured  ornaments  worked  on  the 
exteriors  of  buildings  were  the  curious  astragal  or  bead  at 
all  the  angles,  and  the  cornice,  which  consisted  of  a  very 
large  cavetto,  or  hollow  moulding,  surmounted  by  a  fillet. 


Fig.  21. — Isia  Cai'ital  inoM 
Dexderah. 


Fig.  28. — Faxcifcl  Column  rnoM 
Painted  Decobation  at  Thebks. 


These  features  are  almost  invariable  from  the  earliest  to 
the  latest  period  of  the  style.     This  cavetto  was  generally 
enriched,  over  the   doorways,  with   an   ornament   repre. 
senting  a  circular  boss  with  a  wing  at  each  side  of  it 
(Fig.  29). 

One  other  feature  of  Egyptian  architecture  which  was: 
peculiar  to  it  must  be  mentioned ;  namely,  the  obelisk- 

D  2 


36 


ANCIENT   ARCHITECTURE. 


Obelisks  were  nearly  always  erected  in  pairs  in  front 
of  the  pylons  of  the  temples,  and  added  to  the  dignity  of 
the  entrance.  They  were  invariably  monoliths,  slightly 
tapering  in  outline,  carved  with  the  most  perfect  accuracy ; 
they  must  have  existed  originally  in  very  large  numbers. 
Not  a  few  of  these  have  been  transported  to  Europe,  and 
at  least  twelve  are  standing  in  Eome,  one  is  in  Paris,  and 
one  in  London. 


Fig.  29.— Ckowkino  Coenice  and  Bead. 


The  most  striking  features,  and  the  most  artistic,  in  the 
decoration  of  Egyptian  buildings,  are  the  mural  paintings 
and  sculptured  j)ictures,  which  are  found  in  the  most  lavish 
profusion,  and  which  exhibit  the  highest  skill  in  conven- 
tionalising the  human  figure  and  other  objects.*  Tombs 
and  temples,  columns  and  obelisks  are  completely  covered 
with  graphic  representations  of  peaceful  home  pursuits, 
warlike  expeditions  and  battle  scenes,  and — though  not 
till  a  late  period — descriptions  of  ritual  and  mythological 
delineations  of  the  supposed  spirit-world  which  the  soul 
has  entered  after  death.     These  pictures,  together  with  the 

♦  Conventionalising  may  be  described  as  representing  a  part  only  of  the 
visible  qualities  or  features  of  an  object,  omitting  the  remainder  or  very 
slightly  indicating  them.  A  black  silhouette  portrait  is  an  extreme 
instance  of  convention,  as  it  displays  absolutely  nothing  but  the  outline 
of  a  profile.  For  decorative  purposes  it  is  almost  always  necessary  to  con- 
ventionalise to  a  greater  or  less  extent  whatever  is  represented. 


EGYPTIAN   DECORATIONS.  37 

hieroglyphic  inscriptions — which  are  in  themselves  a  series 
of  pictures — not  only  relieve  the  bare  wall  surface,  but, 
what  is  far  more  important,  enable  us  to  realise  the  kind 
of  existence  which  was  led  by  this  ancient  people ;  and 
as  in  nearly  every  case  the  cartouche  (or  symbol  represent- 
ing the  name)  of  the  monarch  under  whose  reign  the 
building  was  erected  was  added,  we  should  be  able  to  fix 
the  dates  of  the  buildings  with  exactness,  were  the  chro- 
nology of  the  kings  made  out  beyond  doubt. 

The  following  description  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Egyptian  paintings  and  sculptures  were  executed — from 
the  pen  of  Owen  Jones — will  be  read  with  interest : — 
"  The  wall  was  first  chiselled  as  smooth  as  possible,  the 
imperfections  of  the  stone  were  filled  up  with  cement  or 
plaster,  and  the  whole  was  rubbed  smooth  and  covered 
with  a  coloured  wash ;  lines  were  then  ruled  perpendi- 
cularly and  horizontally  with  red  colour,  forming  squares 
all  over  the  wall  corresponding  with  the  proportions  of 
the  figure  to  be  drawn  upon  it.  The  subjects  of  the 
painting  and  of  the  hieroglyphics  were  then  drawn  on 
the  wall  with  a  red  line,  most  probably  by  the  priest  or 
chief  scribe,  or  by  some  inferior  artist,  from  a  document 
divided  into  similar  squares ;  then  came  the  chief  artist, 
who  went  over  every  figure  and  hieroglyphic  with  a  black 
line,  and  a  firm  and  steady  hand,  giving  expression  to  each 
curve,  deviating  here  and  confirming  there  the  red  line. 
The  line  thus  traced  was  then  followed  by  the  sculptor. 
The  next  process  was  to  paint  the  figure  in  the  prescribed 
colours." 

Although  Egyptian  architecture  was  essentially  a  tra- 
beated  style, — that  is  to  say,  a  style  in  which  beams  or 
lintels  were  usually  employed  to  cover  openings,— there  is 
strong  ground  for  the  belief  that  the  builders  of  that  time 


88  ANCIENT  AECHITECTIJRE. 

were  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  arch.  Dr.  Birch 
mentions  a  rudimentary  arch  of  the  time  of  the  fifth 
dynasty:  at  Abydos  there  are  also  remains  of  vaulted 
tombs  of  the  sixth  dynasty ;  and  in  a  tomb  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Pyramids  there  is  an  elementary  arch  of 
three  stones  surmounted  by  a  true  arch  constructed  in  four 
courses.  The  probability  is  that  true  brick  arches  were 
built  at  a  very  early  period,  but  in  the  construction  of 
their  tombs,  where  heavy  masses  of  superincumbent 
masonry  or  rock  had  to  be  supported,  the  Egyptians 
seem  to  have  been  afraid  to  risk  even  the  remote  possi- 
bility of  their  arches  decaying;  and  hence,  even  when 
they  preserved  the  form  of  the  arch  in  masonry,  they 
constructed  it  with  horizontal  courses  of  stones  projecting 
one  over  the  other,  and  then  cut  away  the  lower  angles. 
One  dominating  idea  seems  to  have  influenced  them  in 
the  whole  of  their  work — esto  perpetua  was  their  motto; 
and  though  they  have  been  excelled  by  later  peoples  in 
grace  and  beaxity,  it  is  a  question  whether  they  have  ever 
been  surpassed  in  the  skill  with  which  they  adapted  their 
means  to  the  end  which  they  always  kept  in  view. 

ANALYSIS  OF  BUILDINGS. 

Plan. 

Floor  (technically  Plan). — The  early  rock-cut  tombs 
were,  of  course,  only  capable  of  producing  internal  effects ; 
their  floor  presents  a  series  of  halls  and  galleries,  vary- 
ing in  size  and  shape,  leading  one  out  of  the  other,  and 
intended  by  their  contrast  or  combination  to  produce 
architectural  effect.  To  this  was  added  in  the  later  rock- 
cut  tombs  a  facade  to  be  seen  directly  in  front.  Much 
the  same  account  can  be  given  of  the  disposition  of  tho 


EGYPTIAN. — ANALYSIS.  39 

built  temples.  They  possess  one  front,  which  the  spectator 
approaches,  and  they  are  disposed  so  as  to  produce  varied 
and  impressive  interiors,  but  not  to  give  rise  to  external 
display.  The  supports,  such  as  walls,  columns,  j)iers,  are 
all  very  massive  and  very  close  together,  so  that  the  only 
wide  open  spaces  are  courtyards. 

The  circle,  or  octagon,  or  other  polygonal  forms  do  not 
appear  in  the  plans  of  Egyptian  buildings ;  but  though  all 
the  lines  are  straight,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  irregularity 
in  spacing,  walls  which  face  one  another  are  not  always 
parallel,  and  angles  which  appear  to  be  right  angles  very 
often  are  not  so. 

The  later  buildings  extend  over  much  space.  The 
adjuncts  to  these  buildings,  especially  the  avenues  of 
sphinxes,  are  planned  so  as  to  produce  an  air  of  stately 
grandeur,  and  in  them  some  degree  of  external  effect  is 
aimed  at. 

Walls. 

The  walls  are  uniformly  thick,  and  often  of  granite  or 
of  stone,  though  brick  is  also  met  with ;  e.g.  some  of  the 
smaller  pyramids  are  built  entirely  of  brick.  In  all  pro- 
bability the  walls  of  domestic  buildings  were  to  a  great 
extent  of  brick,  and  less  thick  than  those  of  the  temples ; 
hence  they  have  all  disappeared. 

The  surface  of  walls,  even  when  of  granite,  was  usually 
plastered  with  a  thin  fine  plaster,  which  was  covered  by 
the  profuse  decoration  in  colour  already  alluded  to. 

The  walls  of  the  propylons  tapered  from  the  base  towards 
the  top,  and  the  same  thing  sometimes  occurred  in  other 
walls.  In  almost  all  cases  the  stone  walls  are  built  of 
very  large  blocks,  and  they  show  an  unrivalled  skill  in 
masonry. 


40  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTUBE. 

Itoofs. 

The  roofing  which  remains  is  executed  entirely  in  stone, 
but  not  arched  or  vaulted.  The  rock-cut  tombs,  however, 
as  has  been  stated,  contain  ceilings  of  an  arched  shape, 
and  in  some  cases  forms  which  seem  to  be  an  imitation  of 
timber  roofing.  The  roofing  of  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at 
Kamak  provides  an  arrangement  for  admitting  light  very 
similar  to  the  clerestory  of  Gothic  cathedrals. 

Ojpenings. 

The  openings  were  all  covered  by  a  stone  lintel,  and 
consequently  were  uniformly  square-headed.  The  inter- 
spaces between  columns  were  similarly  covered,  and  hence 
Egyptian  architecture  has  been,  and  correctly,  classed 
as  the  first  among  the  styles  of  trabeated  architecture. 
Window-openings  seldom  occur. 

Columns. 

The  columns  have  been  already  described  to  some  extent. 
They  are  almost  always  circular  in  plan,  but  the  shaft  is 
sometimes  channelled.  They  are  for  the  most  part  of 
sturdy  proportions,  but  great  grace  and  elegance  are 
shown  in  the  profile  given  to  shafts  and  capitals.  The 
design  of  the  capitals  especially  is  full  of  variety,  and 
admirably  adapts  forms  obtained  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. The  general  effect  of  the  Egyptian  column,  wher- 
ever it  is  used,  is  that  it  appears  to  have,  as  it  really  has, 
a  great  deal  more  strength  than  is  required.  The  fact 
that  the  abacus  (the  square  block  of  stone  introduced 
between  the  moulded  part  of  the  capital  and  what  it 
carries)  is  often  smaller  in  width  than  the  diameter  of 
the  column  aids  very  much  to  produce  this  effect. 


EGYPTIAN. — ANALYSIS.  41 

Ornaments. 

Mouldings  are  very  rarely  employed  ;  in  fact,  tlie  large 
bead  running  up  the  angles  of  the  pylons,  &c.,  and  a  heavy 
hollow  moulding  doing  duty  as  a  cornice,  are  all  that  are 
usually  met  with.  Sculpture  and  carving  occur  occa- 
sionally, and  are  freely  introduced  in  later  works,  where 
we  sometimes  find  statues  incorporated  into  the  design  of 
the  fronts  of  temples.  Decoration  in  colour,  in  the  shape 
of  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  and  paintings  of  all  sorts, 
was  profusely  employed  (Figs.  27-30),  and  is  executed 
with  a  truth  of  drawing  and  a  beauty  of  colouring  that 
have  never  been  surpassed.  As  has  been  pointed  out, 
almost  every  object  drawn  is  partly  conventionalised,  in 
the  most  skilful  manner,  so  as  to  make  it  fit  its  place 
as  a  piece  of  a  decorative  system. 

Architectural  Character. 

This  is  gloomy,  and  to  a  certain  extent  forbidding, 
owing  to  the  heavy  walls  and  piers  and  columns,  and  the 
great  masses  supported  by  them ;  but  when  in  its  fresh- 
ness and  quite  uninjured  by  decay  or  violence,  the  exquisite 
colouring  of  the  walls  and  ceilings  and  columns  must  have 
added  a  great  deal  of  beauty :  this  must  have  very  much 
diminished  the  oppressive  effect  inseparable  from  such 
massive  construction  and  from  the  gloomy  darkness  of 
many  portions  of  the  buildings.  It  is  also  noteworthy 
that  the  expenditure  of  materials  and  labour  is  greater  in 
proportion  to  the  effect  attained  than  in  any  other  style. 
The  pyramids  are  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  this 
prodigality.  Before  condemning  this  as  a  defect  in  the 
style,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  stability  which  should 
defy  enemies,  earthquakes,  and  the  tooth  of  time,  was  far 


42 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 


more  aimed  at  than  architectural  character;  and  that, 
had  any  mode  of  construction  less  lavish  of  material,  and 
less  perfect  in  workmanship,  been  adopted,  the  buildings 
of  Egypt  might  have  all  disappeared  ere  this. 


Fig.  30. — Paixted  Decoration  fkom  Thebes. 


Fig.  31. — SCULPTUKED   OkNAMENT  at   KlKEVKH. 


CHAPTER  III. 

WEST   ASIATIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

THE  architectiiral  styles  of  the  ancient  nations  -which 
ruled  over  the  countries  of  Western  Asia  watered 
by  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  from  a  period  about 
2200  B.C.  down  to  330  B.C.,  are  so  intimately  connected  one 
with  another,  and  so  dependent  one  upon  the  other,  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  attempt  an  accurate  discrimination 
between  the  Babylonian  or  ancient  Chalda^an,  the  Assyrian 
and  the  Persian.  A  more  intelligible  idea  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  this  long  period  will  be  gained  by  regarding* 
the  three  styles  as  modifications  and  developments  of  one 
original  style,  than  by  endeavouring  to  separate  them.* 
Their  sequence  can,  however,  be  accurately  determined. 
First  comes  the  old  Chalda^an  period,  next  the  Assyrian, 
during  which  the  great  city  of  Nineveh  was  built,  and 

*  In  any  such  endeavour  we  should  be  met  by  the  further  difficulty, 
that  the  writers  of  antiquity  differ  widely  in  the  precise  limits  which  they 
give  to  the  Assyrian  Kingdom.  Some  make  it  include  Babylon,  other 
writers  say  that  it  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  Babylon,  and  altogether 
the  greatest  confusion  exists  in  the  accoimts  that  have  come  down  to  us. 


44  ANCIENT  ABCHITECTURE. 

finally  the  Persian,  after  Cyrus  had  subdued  the  older 
monarchies ;  and  remains  exist  of  all  these  periods.  As 
to  the  origin  of  the  Chaldaean  Kingdom,  however,  all  is 
obscure  ;  and  the  earliest  date  which  can  be  fixed  with 
the  slightest  approach  to  probability  is  2234  b.c,  when 
Nimrod  is  supposed  to  have  founded  the  old  Chaldeean 
dynasty.  This  seems  to  have  lasted  about  700  years,  and 
was  then  overthrown  by  a  conquering  nation  of  which 
no  record  or  even  tradition  remains,  the  next  two  and  a 
half  centuries  being  a  complete  blank  till  the  rise  of  the 
great  Assyrian  Monarchy  about  1290  b.c,  which  lasted 
till  its  destruction  by  Cjrrus  about  538  B.C.  The  Persian 
Monarchy  then  endured  till  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  in  333  B.C.,  after  which  great  confusion  arose,  the 
empire  being  broken  up  among  his  generals  and  rapidly 
falling  to  pieces. 

It  is  only  within  a  comparatively  recent  period  that  we 
have  had  any  knowledge  of  the  architecture  of  these 
countries;  but  the  explorations  of  M.  Botta,  commenced 
in  1843  and  continued  by  M.  Place,  and  those  of  Mr.  (now 
Sir  A.  H.)  Layard  in  1845,  combined  with  the  successful 
attempts  of  Prof.  Grotefend,  Prof.  Lassen,  and  Col.  Eaw- 
linson  at  deciphering  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  have  dis- 
closed a  new  world  to  the  architectural  student,  without 
which  some  of  the  developments  of  Greek  architecture 
must  have  remained  obscure.  The  authentic  remains  of 
buildings  of  the  early  Chaldaean  period  are  too  few  and  in 
too  ruinous  a  condition  to  allow  of  a  reproduction  of  their 
architectural  features  with  any  certainty.  The  buildings, 
whether  palaces  or  temples,  appear  to  have  been  con- 
structed on  terraces,  and  to  have  been  several  storeys  in 
height ;  and  in  one  instance,  at  Mugheyr,  the  walls  sloped 
inwards  in  a  similar  manner  to  those  of  Egyptian  build- 


BABYLONIAN.  45 

ings,  a  peculiarity  which  is  not  met  with  in  other  examples 
of  West  Asiatic  architecture.  The  materials  employed 
were  bricks,  both  sun-dried  and  kiln-bumt,  which  seem 
to  have  been  coated  with  a  vitreous  enamel  for  purposes 
of  interior  decoration.  Fragments  of  carved  limestone 
were  discovered  by  Sir  A.  H.  Layard,  but  the  fact  that 
the  fragments  found  have  been  so  few  ought  not  to 
lead  us  too  hastily  to  the  conclusion  that  stone  was  not 
used  as  facing  for  architectural  purposes,  as  after  the 
buildings  became  ruined  the  stone  would  eagerly  be  sought 
for  and  canied  away  before  the  brickwork  was  touched. 
Bitumen  seems  to  have  been  employed  as  a  cement.  Al- 
though original  buildings  of  this  era  cannot  be  found, 
it  has  been  shown  that  in  all  probability  we  have,  in  a 
building  of  a  later  date — the  Birs-i-Nimrud — a  type  of  the 
old  Babylonian  temple.  This  in  its  general  disposition 
must  have  resembled  that  of  the  Tomb  of  Cyrus,  described 
and  figured  later  on,  though  on  a  vastly  larger  scale.  The 
lowest  storey  appears  to  have  been  an  exact  square  of 
272  ft. ;  each  of  the  higher  storeys  was  42  ft.  less  horizon- 
tally than  the  one  below  it,  and  was  placed  30  ft.  back 
from  the  front  of  the  storey  below  it,  but  equidistant 
from  the  two  sides,  where  the  platforms  were  21  ft.  wide. 
The  three  upper  storeys  were  45  ft.  in  height  altogether, 
the  two  below  these  were  26  ft.  each,  and  the  height  of 
the  lowest  is  uncertain.  The  topmost  storey  probably  had 
a  tower  on  it  which  enclosed  the  shrine  of  the  temple. 
This  edifice  was  for  a  long  time  a  bone  of  contention 
among  savants,  but  Colonel  Eawlinson's  investigations 
have  brought  to  light  the  fact  that  it  was  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  the  seven  heavenly  spheres,  viz.  Saturn,  Juj)iter, 
Mars,  the  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  and  the  Moon,  in  the 
order  given,  starting  from   the   bottom.     Access   to   the 


46  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

various  platforms  was  obtained  by  stairs,  and  the  whole 
building  was  surrounded  by  a  walled  enclosure.  From 
remains  found  at  Wurkha  we  may  gather  that  the  walls 
of  the  buildings  of  this  period  were  covered  with  elaborate 
plaster  ornaments,  and  that  a  lavish  use  was  made  of 
colour  in  their  decoration. 

Of  the  later  Assyrian  period  several  ruins  of  buildings 
believed  to  be  palaces  have  been  excavated,  of  which  the 
large  palace  at  Khorsabad,  the  old  name  of  which  was 
Hisir-Sargon,  now  a  small  village  between  10  and  11  miles 
north-east  of  Nineveh,  has  been  the  most  completely 
explored,  and  this  consequently  is  the  best  adapted  to  ex- 
plain the  general  plan  of  an  Assyrian  edifice.  M.  Botta, 
when  French  Consul  at  Mosul,  and  M.  Victor  Place  con- 
ducted these  explorations,  and  the  following  details  are 
taken  from  their  works.  Like  all  other  Assyrian  palaces, 
this  was  reared  on  a  huge  artificial  mound,  the  labour 
of  forming  which  must  have  been  enormous.  The  reason 
for  the  construction  of  these  mounds  is  not  far  to  seek. 
Just  as  the  chiefs  of  a  mountainous  country  choose  the 
loftiest  peaks  for  their  castles,  so  in  Assyria,  which 
was  a  veiy  flat  country,  the  extra  defensive  strength 
of  elevated  buildings  was  clearly  appreciated;  and  a» 
these  absolute  monarchs  ruled  over  a  teeming  popula- 
tion and  had  a  very  large  number  of  slaves,  and  only  had- 
to  direct  their  taskmasters  to  impress  labour  whenever 
they  wanted  it,  no  difficulty  existed  in  forming  elevated 
platforms  for  their  palaces.  These  were  frequently  close 
to  a  river,  and  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  this  was- 
turned  into  the  excavation  from  which  the  earth  for  the 
mound  was  taken,  and  thus  formed  a  lake  or  moat  as  an 
additional  defence.  A  further  reason  for  these  terraces 
may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  a  hot  climate  buildings 


ASSYRIAN.  47 

erected  some  20  or  30  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  plain 
catch  the  breezes  much  more  quickly  than  lower  edifices. 
In  the  case  of  Khorsabad  the  terrace  was  made  of  sun- 
dried  bricks,  about  15*7  in.  square  and  2  in.  thick.  These 
bricks  were  made  of  the  most  carefully  prepared  clay. 
The  terrace  was  faced  by  a  retaining  wall  of  coursed 
masonry,  nearly  10  ft.  in  thickness.  On  this  terrace 
the  palace  was  built,  and  it  consisted  of  a  series  of  open 
courts  arranged  unsymmetrically,  surrounded  by  state  or 
private  apartments,  storehouses,  stables,  &c.  Great  care 
seems  to  have  been  exercised  in  the  accurate  orientation  of 
the  building,  but  in  rather  a  peculiar  manner.  Instead 
of  any  one  facade  of  the  building  facing  due  north, 
the  comers  face  exactly  towards  the  four  points  of  the 
compass.  The  courts  were  all  entered  by  magnificent 
portals  flanked  by  gigantic  figures,  and  were  approached 
by  flights  of  steps.  Fig.  32  is  a  plan  of  the  palace  of 
Khorsabad,  which  was  placed  close  to  the  boundary  of  the 
city ;  in  fact  it  was  partly  outside  the  city  wall  proper, 
thoiigh  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  its  own.  The  grand 
south-east  portals  or  propylaea  were  adorned  with  huge 
human-headed  bulls  and  gigantic  figures,  and  gave  access 
to  a  large  court,  315  ft.  by  280  ft.,  on  the  east  side  of  which 
are  the  stables  and  out-houses,  and  on  the  west  side  the 
metal  stores.  On  the  north  of  this  court,  though  not 
approached  directly  from  it,  was  the  Seraglio  (not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Harem),  the  grand  entrance  to  which 
was  from  a  second  large  court,  access  to  which  was  obtained 
from  a  roadway  sloping  up  from  the  city.  The  portals 
to  this  portion  of  the  palace  were  also  adorned  with 
human-headed  bulls.  From  the  second  court  a  vaulted 
passage  gave  access  to  the  state  apartments,  which  appear 
to  have  had  a  direct  view  across  the  open  country,  and 


Fio.  32.— Palace  of  KuosiiABAu.    Built  ur  King  Sabgon  about  YlO  B.C. 

A,  Steps.  B,  Chief  portal.  C,  Chief  entrance-court.  D-H,  Women's  apartments  (Harem).  J,  Centre 
court  of  building.  K,  Chief  court  of  royal  residence.  L,  Portal  with  carved  bulls  as  guards. 
M,  Centre  court  of  royal  residence.  N,  Temple  (?).  0,  Pyramid  of  steps.  S,  Entrance  to  chief  court. 
T,  Plan  of  terraces  with  wall  and  towers. 


ASSYRIAN.  49 

were  quite  ontsido  the  city  walls.  The  Harem  has  been 
excavated ;  it  stood  just  outside  the  palace  proper,  behind 
the  metal  stores.  The  remains  of  an  observatory  exist, 
and  the  outlines  of  what  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
temple  have  also  been  unearthed,  so  that  we  have  hero  a 
complete  plan  of  the  palace.  Altogether  31  courts  and 
198  chambers  have  been  discovered. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  great  disproportion  exists  between 
the  length  of  the  various  apartments  and  their  breadth,  none 
being  more  than  40  ft.  wide ;  and  it  is  probable  that  this 
was  owing  to  structural  necessities,  the  Assyrian  builders 
finding  it  impossible,  with  the  materials  at  their  disj)osal, 
to  cover  wider  spaces  than  this.     The  walls  of  this  jialace 
vary  from  5  to  15  ft.  in  thickness,  and  are  composed  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  faced  in  the  principal  courts  and  state 
apartments  with  slabs  of  alabaster  or  Mosul  gypsum  to  a 
height  of  from  9  to  12  ft.,  above  which  kiln-burnt  bricks 
were  used.     The  alabaster  slabs  were   held   together  by 
iron,  copper,  or  wooden  cramps,  or  plugs,  and  were  covered 
with  sculptured  pictures  representing  scenes  of  peace  and 
war,  from  which,   as  was   the   case  with   the   Egyptian 
remains,  we  are  able  to  reconstruct  for  ourselves  the  daUy 
life  of  the  monarchs  of  those   early  times.     Above  the 
alabaster  slabs  plastered  decorations  were  used;  in  some 
cases  painted  frescoes  have  been  found,  or  mosaics  formed 
with   enamelled   bricks  of  various  colours.     In  the  out- 
buildings and  the  more  retired  rooms  of  the  palace,  the 
alabaster  slabs  were  omitted,  and  plaster  decorations  used, 
from  the  ground  upwards.     The  researches  of  MM.  Botta 
and  Place  have  shown  that  colour  was  used  with  a  lavish- 
ness  quite  foreign  to  our  notions,  as  the  alabaster  statues 
as  well  as  the  plaster  enrichments  were  coloured.     M.  Place 
eays  that  in  no  case  were  the  plain  bricks  allowed  to  face 

E 


50  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

the  walls  of  an  apartment,  the  joint  being  always  con- 
cealed either  by  colour  or  plaster :  in  fact,  he  remarks  that 
after  a  time,  if  he  found  walls  standing  showing  the  brick- 
work joints,  he  invariably  searched  with  success  among 
the  debris  of  the  chamber  for  remains  of  the  sculptured 
decorations  which  had  been  used  to  face  the  walls. 

Not  the  least  interesting  of  these  discoveries  was  that 
of  the  drains  under  the  palace,  portions  of  which  were 
in  very  good  preservation ;  and  all  were  vaulted,  so  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  Assyrians  were 
acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  arch.  This  was  further 
proved  by  the  discovery  by  M.  Place  of  the  great  arched 
gates  of  the  city  itself,  with  an  archivolt  of  coloured 
enamelled  bricks  forming  various  patterns,  with  a  semi- 
circular arch  springing  from  plain  jambs.  Extreme  care 
was  taken  by  the  Assyrian  builders  in  laying  the  pave- 
ments to  ensure  their  being  perfectly  level :  first  a  layer 
of  kiln-burnt  bricks  was  laid  on  the  ordinary  sun-dried 
bricks  forming  the  terrace ;  then  came  a  layer  of  fine  sand, 
upon  which  the  bricks  or  slabs  of  the  pavement  proper 
were  laid,  forming  in  many  cases  an  elegant  pattern  (see 
Fig.  33). 

Great  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  various  apartments  of  the  palace  were  lighted. 
M.  Place  suggests  that  the  rooms  were  all  vaulted  on  the 
inside,  and  the  spandrels  filled  in  with  earth  afterwards  to 
form  perfectly  flat  roofs,  and  he  gives  a  restoration  of  the 
building  on  such  an  arrangement;  but  if  he  is  correct, 
it  is  impossible  to  see  how  any  light  at  all  can  have  pene- 
trated into  the  interior  of  many  of  the  apartments,  and 
as  these  apartments  are  decorated  with  a  profusion  of 
paintings  it  is  very  difficult  to  believe  that  artificial  light 
alone  was  used  in  them.     M.  Place  thinks,  however,  that 


ASSYRIAN. 


51 


in  some  cylindrical  terra-cotta  vessels  wMch  he  found  he 
has  hit  upon  a  species  of  skylight  which  passed  completely 
through  the  vault  over  the  rooms,  and  thus  admitted  the 
light  from  above.  This,  however,  can  hardly  he  considered 
as  settled  yet.  Mr.  Fergusson,  on  the  other  hand,  suggests 
that  the  thick  main  Avails  were  carried  to  a  height  of  about 
18  or  19  ft.,  and  that  above  this  were  two  rows  of  dwarf 
columns,  one  on  the  inner  and  the  other  on  the  outer  edge 


Fig.  33. — I'AVEMEXT  FKOM  Khoyukjik. 


of  the  wall,  these  columns  supporting  a  flat  terrace  roof,  and 
the  walls  thus  forming  galleries  all  round  the  apartments. 
Then  to  cover  the  space  occupied  by  the  apartments  them- 
selves it  is  necessaiy  to  assume  the  existence  of  rows  of 
columns,  the  capitals  of  which  were  at  the  same  level  as 
those  of  the  dwarf  columns  on  the  walls.  "Where  one 
apartment  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  others,  the  roof 
over  it  may  have  been  carried  up  to  a  higher  level,  forming 

£  2 


52  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

a  sort  of  clerestory.  This  theory  no  doubt  accounts  for 
many  things  which  are  very  hard  to  explain  otherwise, 
and  derives  very  strong  support  from  the  analogy  of  Per- 
sepolis,  where  slender  stone  columns  exist.  Such  columns 
of  cedar  wood  would  add  enormously  to  the  magnificence 
and  grandeur  of  the  building ;  and  if,  as  seems  likely,  most 
of  these  Assyrian  palaces  were  destroyed  by  fire,  the 
absence  of  the  remains  of  columns  offers  no  diificulty. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  many  parts  of  the  palace  of  Khorsa- 
bad  no  trace  of  fire  remains,  and  yet  here  no  suggestion 
of  detached  columns  can  be  found,  and,  moreover,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  arrange  columns  symmetrically  in  the 
various  apartments  so  that  doorways  are  not  interfered 
with.  There  is  also  another  difficulty,  viz.  that  if  the 
building  called  the  Harem  at  Khorsabad  was  built  in  this 
way,  the  apartments  would  have  been  open  to  the  view  of 
any  one  ascending  the  lofty  building  called  the  observatory. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  further  explorations  may  tend  to 
elucidate  this  difficult  question  of  roofing,  but  at  present 
all  that  can  be  said  is  that  none  of  the  theories  that  have 
been  put  forward  is  wholly  satisfactory. 

As  no  columns  at  all  exist,  we  cannot  say  what  capitals 
were  employed,  but  it  is  probable  that  those  of  Persepolis, 
which  will  be  shortly  described,  were  copied  from  an 
earlier  wooden  form,  which  may  have  been  that  used  by  the 
Assyrian  builders.  There  is,  however,  capping  the  terrace 
on  which  the  temple  was  erected  at  Khorsabad,  a  good 
example  of  an  Assyrian  cornice,  which  is  very  similar 
indeed  to  the  forms  found  in  Egypt,  and  some  of  the 
sculptured  bas-reliefs  which  have  been  discovered  depict 
rude  copies  of  Assyrian  buildings  drawn  by  the  people 
themselves ;  and  it  is  most  interesting  to  notice  that  just 
as  we  found  in  the  Egj^itian  style  the  proto-Doric  column, 


^ 


9/ 


PERSIAN. 


53 


so  in  the  Assyrian  we  find  the  proto-Ionic  (Figs.  34,  34a), 
and  possibly  also  the  proto-Corinthian  (Fig.  34b). 

The  third  branch  of  West  Asiatic  architecture  is  the 
Persian,  which  was  developed  after  Cyrus  had  conquered 
the  older  monarchies,  and  which  attained  its  greatest  mag- 
nificence under  Darius  and  Xerxes.  The  Persians  were 
originally  a  brave  and  hardy  race  inhabiting  the  moun- 
tainous region  south  of  Media,  which  slopes  down  to  the 
Persian  Gulf.    Until  the  time  of  Cyrus,  who  was  the  founder 


Fig.  34a. — Proto-Ioxic 

Capitai,  from  Assyrian 

Sculpture. 


Fig.  34b.— Proto- 
Corinthian  Capital 
FROM  Assyrian 
Sculpture. 


FiG.  34.— Proto- 
loxic  Column. 


of  the  great  kingdom  of  Persia,  they  inhabited  small  towns, 
had  no  architecture,  and  were  simple  barbarians.  But  after 
Cyrus  had  vanquished  the  wealthy  and  luxurious  Assyrian 
monarchs,  and  his  warriors  had  seen  and  wondered  at  the 
opulence  and  splendour  of  the  Assyrian  palaces,  it  was 
natural  that  his  successors  should  strive  to  emulate  for 
themselves  the  display  of  their  vassals.  Therefore,  having 
no  indigenous  style  to  fall  back  upon,  the  artisans  who 
were  summoned  to  build  the  tomb  of  the  founder  of  the 
monarchy  and  the  palaces  of  his  successors,  simply  copied 


54 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  fonns  with  which  they  wore  acquainted.  Fortunately, 
the  sites  for  the  new  palaces  were  in  a  locality  where  build- 
ing stone  was  good  and  abundant,  and  the  presence  of  this 
material  had  a  modifying  effect  upon  the  architecture. 

The  best  known  of  the  remains  which  date  as  far  back 
as  the  earlier  Persian  dynasties  is  the  so-called  tomb  of 
Cyrus  at  Pasargadaj,  near  Murghab  (Fig.  35).     This  may 


Fig.  35.— Tomb  of  Ctrls. 


be  looked  upon  as  a  model  in  white  marble  of  an  old 
Chaldffian  temple,  such  as  the  Birs-i-Nimrud.  There 
are  the  same  platforms  diminishing  in  area  as  the  top  is 
approached,  and  on  the  topmost  platform  is  a  small  cella 
or  temple  with  a  gabled  stone  roof,  which  probably 
originally  contained  the  sarcophagus.  It  is,  however,  at 
Pcrsepolis,  the  real  capital  of  the  later  Persian  kings, 
whose  grandeur  and  wealth  were  such  that  Alexander  is 


PERSIAN.  55  • 

said  to  have  found  there  treasure  to  the  amount  of  thirty 
millions  of  pounds  sterling,  that  we  find  the  most  magnifi- 
cent series  of  ruins.  These  were  carefully  measured  and 
drawn  by  Baron  Texier  in  1835,  and  his  work  and  that  of 
MM.  Flandrin  and  Coste  are  those  from  which  the  best 
information  on  this  subject  can  be  obtained. 

Persepolis  is  about  35  miles  north-east  of  Shiraz,  close  to 
the  main  highway  to  Ispahan,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain 
range  which  bounds  the  extensive  plain  of  Nurdusht.  The 
modem  inhabitants  of  the  district  call  the  ruins  Takht-i- 
Jamshid  (or  the  building  of  Jamshid),  but  the  inscriptions 
that  have  been  deciphered  prove  that  Darius  and  Xerxes 
were  the  chief  builders.  Just  as  was  the  case  with  the 
Assyrian  ruins,  these  stand  on  an  immense  platform 
which  rises  perpendicularly  from  the  plain  and  abuts  in 
the  rear  against  the  mountain  range.  Instead,  however, 
of  this  platform  being  raised  artificially,  it  was  cut  out  of 
the  rock,  and  levelled  into  a  series  of  terraces,  on  which 
the  buildings  were  erected.  The  platform,  whose  length 
from  north  to  south  is  about  1582  ft.,  and  breadth  from 
east  to  west  about  938  ft.,  is  approached  from  the  plain 
by  a  magnificent  double  staircase  of  black  marble,  of  very 
easy  rise,  not  more  than  4  in.  each  step.  Its  general 
height  above  the  level  of  the  plain  was  originally 
34  ft.  9  in.  The  retaining  wall  of  the  platform  is  not 
straight,  but  has  in  it  40  breaks  or  set-ofl"s  of  unequal 
dimensions.  At  the  top  of  the  staircase  are  the  remains  of 
a  building  with  four  columns  in  the  centre  and  with  large 
portals  both  back  and  front,  each  of  which  is  adorned  with 
gigantic  bulls,  strikingly  resembling  those  found  at  Khorsa- 
bad.  Those  in  the  front  have  no  wings,  but  those  in  the 
rear  have  wings  and  human  heads.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  these  are  the  ruins  of  one  of  those  large  covered  gates 


56 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 


frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  under  the  shelter  of 
which  business  was  transacted,  and  which  probably  formed 
the  entrance  to  the  whole  range  of  courts  and  buildings. 
After  passing  through  this  gateway  and  turning  south- 
wards, at  a  distance  of  177  feet  from  it,  another  terrace 


Fig.  35a.— Genebal  Flak  of  the  Builddjgs  at  Peesepolis. 


is  reached,  9  ft.  2  in.  higher  than  the  first  one.  This  ter- 
race also  is  approached  by  four  flights  of  steps  profusely 
decorated  with  sculptured  bas-reliefs,  and  on  it  are  the 
remains  of  the  Chehil  Minar,  the  grand  hexastyle  Hall  of 


PERSIAN.  57 

Xerxes,  which  must  have  "been  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
buildings  of  ancient  times.  This  building  is  marked  A  on 
the  general  plan.  It  consisted  of  a  central  court,  contain- 
ing thirty-six  columns,  the  distance  from  centre  to  centre 
of  the  outside  columns  being  142  ft.  8  in.  This  court  was 
surrounded  by  walls,  of  which  nothing  now  remains  but 
the  jambs  of  three  of  the  doorways.  On  three  sides  of 
this  court,  to  the  north,  east  and  west,  were  porticoes  of 
twelve  columns  each,  precisely  in  a  line  with  those  of  the 
central  court,  the  distance  from  centre  to  centre  of  the 
columns  being  28  ft.  6  in.  These  columns,  both  in  their 
proportions  and  shape,  suggest  an  imitation  of  timber  con- 
struction. On  the  south  the  court  was  probably  termi- 
nated by  a  wall,  and  Mr.  Fergusson  suggests  that  the 
corners  between  the  porticoes  were  filled  up  with  small 
chambers.  The  most  striking  feature  of  this  hall  or  palace 
must  have  been  its  loftiness,  the  height  of  the  columns 
varying  from  63  ft.  8  in.  to  64  feet  from  bottom  of  base  to 
top  of  capital.  The  shafts  were  slightly  tapering  and  had 
48  flutings,  and  were  4  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter  in  the  upper 
part.  The  bases  of  the  columns  show  hardly  any  variations, 
and  consist  of  a  series  of  mouldings  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  36 ;  the  lowest  part  of  this  moulded  base  is  enriched 
with  leaves,  and  rests  on  a  low  circular  plinth  at  the 
bottom :  the  total  height  of  the  base  averages  5  feet. 
The  capitals  show  considerable  variations.  Those  of  the 
east  and  west  porticoes  represent  the  heads  and  fore  part 
of  the  bodies  of  two  bulls*  placed  directly  on  the  shaft 
back   to  back,  with  their  forelegs  doubled  under  them, 

*  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  a  marked  distinction  between  the  heads 
of  the  animals  of  the  east  and  west  porticoes :  those  of  the  west  are  un- 
doubtedly bulls,  but  those  of  the  east  are  grotesque  mythological  creatures 
somewhat  resembling  the  fabled  unicorn. 


Fig.  35b. — Column-  tuov  1'eusk- 
rous,  East  asd  West  I'okticoes. 


Fig.  36. — CoLLMN  fkom 
Peusepolis,  Nouih  Poktico. 


PERSIA^^  59 

the  feet  resting  on  the  shaft  and  the  knees  projecting; 
the  total  height  of  these  capitals  is  7  ft.  4  in.  Between 
the  necks  of  the  bulls  rested  the  wooden  girder  which 
supported  the  cross-bearers  of  the  roof.  In  the  north 
portico  and,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  in  the  central 
court,  the  shaft  of  the  column  was  much  shorter,  and 
supj)orted  a  fantastic  elongated  capital,  consisting  of  a 
sort  of  inverted  cup,  supporting  an  elegant  shape  much 
resembling  the  Egyptian  palm-leaf  capital,  above  which, 
on  all  the  four  sides,  are  double  spirals  resembling  the 
ornaments  of  the  Greek  Ionic  capital  known  as  volutes,  but 
jDlaced  perpendicularly,  and  not,  as  in  the  Ionic  capital, 
horizontally.  These  volutes  again  may  have  supported 
double  bulls,  which  would  make  the  total  height  of  the 
columns  the  same  as  those  of  the  east  and  west  porticoes. 
The  doorways  have  cornices  enriched  with  leaves,  similar 
to  those  found  at  Khorsabad,  which  have  already  been 
noticed  as  bearing  a  decided  resemblance  to  the  Egyptian 
doorways. 

On  other  terraces,  slightly  raised  above  the  main  plat- 
form, exist  the  remains,  in  a  more  or  less  ruined  condition, 
of  numerous  other  courts  and  halls,  one  of  which  has  no 
less  than  one  hundred  columns  to  support  its  roof,  but  the 
height  of  this  building  was  much  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Chehil  Minar.  The  existence  of  these  columns  leaves  no 
doubt  that  these  buildings  were  covered  with  flat  roofs; 
and  that  over  part  of  them  was  a  raised  talar  or  prayer- 
j)latform  is  rendered  probable  from  the  introduction  of  such 
a  feature  into  the  sculptured  representation  of  a  palace 
facade  which  forms  the  entrance  to  the  rock-tomb  of 
Darius,  which  was  cut  out  of  the  mountain  at  the  back 
of  the  terrace  of  Persepolis.  The  position  of  this  tomb 
on  the  general  plan  is  marked  B,  and  Fig.  37  is  a  view 


60 


ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE, 


of  the  entrance,  wliich  was  probably  intended  as  a  copy 
of  one  of  the  halls.  All  the  walls  of  the  palaces  were 
profusely  decorated  with  sculptured  pictures,  and  various 
indications  occur  which  induce  the  belief  that  painting 
was  used  to  decorate  those  portions  of  the  walls  that  were 
not  faced  with  sculptured  slabs. 


Fig.  3(. — Thk  Rock-cut  Tomb  of  Darius. 


The  superior  lightness  and  elegance  of  the  Persepolitan 
ruins  to  those  of  an  earlier  epoch  will  not  fail  to  be  noticed, 
but  there  is  still  a  certain  amount  of  barbaric  clumsiness 
discernible,  and  it  is  not  till  we  come  to  Greek  archi- 
tecture that  we  see  how  an  innate  genius  for  art  and 


WEST   ASIATIC. ANALYSIS.  61 

beauty,  such  as  was  possessed  by  tbat  people,  could  cull 
from  previous  styles  everything  capable  of  being  used 
with  effect,  and  discard  or  prune  off  all  the  unnecessary 
exuberances  of  those  styles  which  offend  a  critically  artistic 
taste. 


ANALYSIS   OF   BUILDINGS. 

Plan. 

The  floor-space  of  a  great  Assyrian  or  Medo-Persian 
building  was  laid  out  on  a  plan  quite  distinct  from  that  of 
an  Egyptian  temple ;  for  the  rooms  are  almost  always 
grouped  round  quadrangles.  The  buildings  are  also  placed 
on  terraces,  and  no  doubt  would  secure  external  as  well 
as  internal  effects,  to  which  the  imposing  flights  of  stairs 
provided  would  largely  contribute.  We  find  in  Assyrian 
palaces,  halls  comparatively  narrow  in  proportion  to  their 
great  length,  but  still  so  wide  that  the  roofing  of  them 
must  have  been  a  serious  business,  and  we  find  them 
arranged  side  by  side,  often  three  deep.  In  the  Persian 
buildings,  halls  nearly  square  on  plan,  and  filled  by  a 
multitude  of  columns,  occur  frequently.  In  the  plan  of 
detached  buildings  like  the  Birs-i-Nimrud,  we  are  remiuded 
of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  which  no  doubt  suggested  the 
idea  of  pyramidal  monuments  to  all  subsequent  building 
peoples. 

Walls. 

The  magnificently  worked  granite  and  stones  of  Egypt 
give  place  to  brick  for  the  material  of  the  walls,  with  the 
result  that  a  far  larger  space  could  be  covered  with  build- 
ings by  a  given  number  of  men  in  a  given  time,  but  of 


"62  ANCIENT  ARCHITECTURE. 

course  the  structures  were  far  more  liable  to  decay. 
Accordingly,  sturdy  as  their  walls  are,  we  find  them  at 
the  present  day  reduced  to  mere  shapeless  mounds,  but  of 
prodigious  extent. 

Moof9* 

We  can  only  judge  of  the  roofs  by  inference,  and  it  has 
already  been  stated  that  a  difference  of  opinion  exists 
respecting  them.  It  appears  most  probable  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  buildings  must  have  been  roofed  by 
throwing  timber  beams  from  wall  to  wall  and  forming 
a  thick  platform  of  earth  on  them,  and  must  have  been 
lighted  by  some  sort  of  clerestory.  At  any  rate  the 
stone  roofs  of  the  Egyptians  seem  to  have  been  discarded, 
and  with  them  the  necessity  for  enormous  columns  and 
piers  placed  very  close  together.  In  some  bas-reliefs, 
buildings  with  roofs  of  a  domical  shape  are  represented. 

Openings. 

Doorways  are  the  openings  chiefly  met  with,  and  it  is 
not  often  that  the  superstnacture,  whether  arch  or  lintel, 
remains,  but  it  is  clear  that  in  some  instances,  at  least, 
openings  were  arched.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  im- 
portant doorways,  and  a  large  amount  of  magnificent 
sculpture  was  employed  to  enrich  them. 

Columns. 

The  columns  most  probably  were  of  wood  in  Assyrian 
palaces.  In  some  of  the  Persian  ones  they  were  of  marble, 
but  of  a  proportion  and  treatment  which  point  to  an  imi- 
tation of  forms  suitable  for  wood.     The  bases  and  capitals 


AVEST   ASIATIC. — ANALYSIS.  63 

of  these  slender  shafts  are  beautiful  in  themselves,  and 
very  interesting  as  suggesting  the  source  from  which 
some  of  the  forms  in  Greek  architecture  were  derived ; 
and  on  the  bas-reliefs  other  architectural  forms  are  repre- 
sented which  were  afterwards  used  by  the  Greeks. 

Ornaments. 

Sculptured  slabs,  painted  wall  decorations,  and  terra- 
cotta ornamentation  were  used  as  enrichments  of  the  walls. 
These  slabs,  which  have  become  familiarly  known  through 
the  attention  roused  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  A.  H.  Layard 
and  the  specimens  sent  by  him  to  the  British  Museum, 
are  objects  of  the  deepest  interest ;  so  are  the  carved  bulls 
from  gateways.  In  the  smaller  and  more  purely  orna- 
mental decorations  tho  honeysuckle,  and  other  forms 
familiar  to  us  from  their  subsequent  adoption  by  Greek 
artists,  are  met  with  constantly,  executed  with  great 
taste. 

Architectural  Character. 

A  character  of  lavish  and  ornate  magnificence  is  the 
quality  most  strongly  displayed  by  the  architectural 
remains  of  Western  Asia ;  and  could  we  have  beheld  any 
one  of  the  monuments  before  it  was  reduced  to  ruin,  we 
should  probably  have  seen  this  predominant  to  an  extent 
of  which  it  is  almost  impossible  now  to  form  an  adequate 
idea. 


Fig.  38. — SCULPTOBED  OBXAMEXT   at   AU.AHAB.U). 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Hindu  Architecture. 

HINDU  architecture  is  not  only  unfamiliar  but  uncon- 
genial to  Western  tastes  ;  and  as  it  has  exercised  no 
direct  influence  upon  the  later  styles  of  Europe,  it  will  be 
noticed  in  far  less  detail  than  the  magnitude  and  import- 
ance of  many  Indian  buildings  which  have  been  examined 
and  measured  during  the  last  few  years  would  otherwise 
claim,  although  the  exuberant  wealth  of  ornament  exhibited 
in  these  buildings  denotes  an  artistic  genius  of  very  high 
order,  if  somewhat  uncultured  and  barbaric.  As  by  far  the 
largest  number  of  Hindu  buildings  are  of  a  date  much  later 
than  the  commencement  of  our  era,  a  strict  adherence  to 
chronological  sequence  would  scarcely  allow  the  intro- 
duction of  this  style  so  early  in  the  present  volume ;  but 
we  know  that  several  centuries  before  Christ  powerful 
kingdoms  and  wealthy  cities  existed  in  India ;  and  as  it 
seems  clear  also  that  in  architecture  and  art,  as  well  as  in 


INDIAN.  65 

manners  and  customs,  hardly  any  change*  has  occurred 
from  remote  antiquity,  it  appeared  allowable,  as  well  as 
convenient,  that  the  short  description  we  have  to  oifei- 
shoixld  precede  rather  than  follow  that  of  the  classical 
styles  properly  so  called.  Here,  as  always  when  we 
attempt  to  penetrate  farther  back  than  a  certain  date, 
all  is  obscure  and  mythical.  We  find  lists  of  kings 
and  dynasties  going  back  thotisands  of  years  before  our 
era,'but  nothing  at  all  to  enable  us  to  judge  how  much  of 
this  may  be  taken  as  solid  fact.  Mr.  Fergusson  believes 
he  has  discovered  in  one  date,  viz.  3101  B.C.,  the  first  Aryan 
settlement ;  but  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  useless  to  look  for 
any  architectural  remains  until  after  the  death  of  Gotama 
Buddha  in  543  B.C. ;  in  fact,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
remains  can  be  authenticated  until  the  reign  of  King 
Asoka  (B.C.  272  to  B.C.  236),  when  Buddhism  had  spread 
over  almost  the  whole  of  the  country,  where  it  remained 
the  predominant  cult  until  Brahmanism  again  asserted  its 
supremacy  in  the  14th  century  a.d. 

The  earliest,  or  among  the  earliest,  architectural  re- 
mains are  the  inscribed  pillars  called  Lats,  which  are 
found  in  numerous  localities,  but  have  been  almost  always 
overthrown.  Many  of  these  were  erected  by  the  above- 
named  Asoka:  they  were  ornamented  with  bands  and 
mouldings  separating  the  inscriptions,  and  crowned  by  a 
sort  of  capital,  which  was  generally  in  the  form  of  an 
animal.     One  very  curious  feature  in  these  pillars  is  the 

*  It  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  Hindustan  has  heen  without  change 
in  her  ruling  dynasties.  These  have  been  continually  changing ;  but  the 
remarkable  fact  is  that,  nimierous  as  have  been  the  nations  that  have 
poured  across  the  Indus  attracted  by  "  the  wealth  of  Ind,"  there  has  been 
no  reflux,  as  it  were  :  the  various  peoples,  with  their  arts,  religions,  and 
manners,  have  been  swallowed  up  and  assimilated,  leaving  but  here  and 
there  slight  traces  of  their  origin. 

F 


66 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


constant  occurrence  of  a  precise  imitation  of  the  well-known 
honeysuckle  ornament  of  the  Greeks ;  this  was  probably 
derived  from  the  same  source  whence  the  Greeks  obtained 
it,  namely  Assyria.  It  is  most  probable  that  these  pillars 
sei^ved  to  ornament  the  approaches  to  some  kind  of  sacred 
enclosure  or  temple,  of  which,  however,  no  remains  have 
been  found. 

Extremely  early  in  date  are  some  of  the  tumuli  or  topes 
which  exist  in  large  numbers  in  various  parts  of  India. 


Fig.  39.— Dagoba  fkom  Ckylojj. 

These  are  of  two  kinds, — the  topes  or  stupas  proper,  which 
were  erected  to  commemorate  some  striking  event  or  to 
mark  a  sacred  spot;  and  the  dagoba s,  which  were  built 
to  cover  the  relics  of  Buddha  himself  or  some  Buddhist 
saint.  These  topes  consist  of  a  slightly  stilted  hemi- 
spherical dome  surmounting  a  substructure,  circular  in 
plan,  which  forms  a  sort  of  terrace,  access  to  which  is 
obtained  by  steps.     The  domical  shape  was,  however,  ex- 


INDIAN.  67 

ternal  only,  as  on  the  inside  the  masonry  was  almost  solid, 
a  few  small  cavities  only  being  left  for  the  protection  of 
various  jewels,  &c.  The  dome  was  probably  surmounted 
by  a  pinnacle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bhilsa,  in  Central  India,  there  are  a  large  number  of 
these  topes,  of  which  the  largest,  that  of  Sanchi,  measures 
121ft.  in  diameter  and  55ft.  in  height;  it  was  erected 
by  King  Asoka. 

Two  kinds  of  edifices  which  are  not  tombs  remain, 
the  chaityas  (temples  or  halls  of  assembly)  and  viharas 
or  monasteries,  which  were  generally  attached  to  the 
chaityas.  These  erections  were  either  detached  or  ciit 
in  the  rock,  and  it  is  only  the  rock-cut  ones  of  which 
remains  exist  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  earliest  specimen  of  a  rock-cut 
chaitya  is  in  the  Nigope  cave,  near  Behar,  constructed 
about  200  B.C.  This  consists  of  two  compartments,  an 
outer  rectangular  one  32  ft.  9  in.  by  19  ft.  1  in.,  and 
an  inner  circular  one  19  ft.  in  diameter.  The  Lomas 
Eishi  cave  is  of  a  slightly  later  date :  both  of  these 
rock-cut  temples  exhibit  in  every  detail  a  reproduction 
of  wooden  forms.  In  the  doorway  the  stone  piers  slope 
inwards,  just  like  raking  wooden  struts,  and  the  upper 
part  represents  the  ends  of  longitudinal  rafters  support- 
ing a  roof.  Later  on  the  builders  emancipated  them- 
selves to  a  certain  extent  from  this  servile  adhesion  to 
older  forms,  and  Fig.  40  gives  a  plan  and  section  of  a 
later  chaitya  at  Karli,  near  Poona.  This  bears  a  striking 
resemblance  to  a  Christian  basilica :  *  there  is  first  the  fore- 
court ;  then  a  rectangular  space  divided  by  columns  into 
iiave  and  aisles,  and  terminated  by  a  semicircular  apse. 

*  See  Chap.  X.  for  an  illustration  of  a  Christian  Basilica. 

F  2 


68 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  nave  is  25  ft.  7  in.  wide,  and  the  aisles  10  ft.  each ; 
the  total  length  is  126  ft.  Fifteen  columns  separate  the 
nave  from  the  aisles,  and  these  have  bases,  octagonal  shafts, 
and  rich  capitals.  Eound  the  apse  the  columns  are  replaced 
by  i)iers.  The  side  aisles  have^  flat  roofs,  and  the  central 
nave  a  stilted  semicircular  one,  practically  a  vault,  which 


Fig.  40.— CnAiirA  keab  Poona. 


at  the  apse  becomes  a  semicircular  dome,  under  which 
is  the  dagoba,  the  symbol  of  Buddhism.  The  screen 
sei^arating  the  forecourt  from  the  temple  itself  is  richly 
ornamented  with  sculpture. 

The  older  viharas  or  monasteries  were  also  cut  in  the  rock 
(Figs.  41,  42),  and  were  divided  into  cells  or  chambers ; 


IKDIAX, 


69 


they  were  several  storeys  in  height,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  cells  were  used  by  devout  Buddhists  as  habitations  for 
the  purposes  of  meditation. 

Among  the  most  remarkable,  and  in  fact  almost  unique 


Fig.  41.— The  Kylas  at  Ellora.    A  Rock-cut  MoNnvKST. 


features  of  Hindu  Architecture  are  the  so-called  rails 
which  form  enclosures  sometimes  round  the  topes  and 
sometimes  round  sacred  trees.  Occasionally  they  are 
found  standing  alone,  though  when  this  is  the  case  it  is 


70 


ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE. 


probably  on  account  of  the  object  which  was  the  cause  of 
their  erection  having  perished.  They  are  built  of  stone, 
carved  so  as  to  represent  a  succession  of  perpendicular  and 
horizontal  bands  or  rails,  separated  by  a  sort  of  pierced 
panels.  The  carving  is  of  the  most  elaborate  description, 
both  human  and  animal  forms  being  depicted  with  great 


Fig.  42.— Plan  of  the  Ktlas  at  Ellora.    A  Rock-cut  Montment. 


fidelity,  and  representations  occur  of  various  forms  of  tree 
worship  which  have  been  of  the  greatest  use  in  elucidating 
the  history  of  this  phase  of  religious  belief.  Occasionally 
the  junctions  of  the  rails  are  carved  into  a  series  of  discs, 
separated  by  elaborate  scroll-work.     These  rails  are  fre- 


INDIAN. 


71 


qiiently  of  very  large  dimensions,  that  at  Bharhut — which 
is  one  of  the  most  recently  discovered — measuring  275  ft. 
in  circumference,  with  a  height  of  22  ft.  6  in.  The  date 
of  these  erections  is  frequently  very  difficult  to  determine, 
but  the  chief  authorities  generally  concur  in  the  opinion 


■;;:.:<Sii^i 


Fig.  43. — Vimana  fkom  Ma.nasaka. 


that  none  are  found  dating  earlier  than  about  250  B.C.,  nor 

later  than  500  a.d.,  so  that  it  is  pretty  certain  they  must 

have  been  appropriated  to  some  form  of  Buddhist  worship. 

All  the  buildings  that  we  have  mentioned  were  devoted 


72  ORIENTAL   ARCHITECTURE. 

to  the  worship  of  Buddha,  but  the  Jain  schism,  Brahmanism, 
and  other  cults  had  their  representative  temples  and  build- 
ings, a  full  description  of  which  would  require  a  volume 
many  times  larger  than  the  present  one.  Many  of  the 
late  detached  buildings  display  rich  ornamentation  and 
elaborate  workmanship.  They  are  generally  of  a  pyramidal 
shape,  several  storeys  in  height,  covered  with  intricately 
cut  mouldings  and  other  fantastic  embellishments. 

Columns  are  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  brackets  frequently 
take  the  place  of  capitals,  and  where  capitals  exist  almost 
every  variety  of  fantastic  form  is  found.  It  has  been 
stated  that  no  fixed  laws  govern  the  plan  or  details  of 
Indian  buildings,  but  there  exists  an  essay  on  Indian 
Architecture  by  Ram  Raz — himself  a  Hindoo — which  tends 
to  show  that  such  a  statement  is  erroneous,  as  hw  quotes 
original  works  of  considerable  antiquity  which  lay  down 
stringent  rules  as  to  the  planning  of  buildings,  their  height, 
and  the  details  of  the  columns.  It  is  probable  that  a  more 
extended  acquaintance  with  Hindu  literature  will  throw 
further  light  on  these  rules. 

Of  the  various  invasions  which  have  occurred  Mome  have 
left  traces  in  the  architecture  of  India.  None  of  these  are 
more  interesting  than  certain  semi-Greek  forms  which  are 
met  with  in  the  Northern  Provinces,  and  which  without 
doubt  are  referable  to  the  influence  of  the  invasion  tinder 
Alexander  the  Great.  A  far  more  conspicuous  and  wide- 
spread series  of  changes  followed  in  the  wake  of  the 
Mohammedan  invasions.  We  shall  have  an  opportunity 
later  on  of  recurring  to  this  subject,*  but  it  is  one  to  which 
attention  should  be  called  at  this  early  stage,  lest  it  should 
be  thought  that  a  large  and  splendid  part  of  Indian  archi- 
tecture had  been  overlooked. 

*  See  chapter  on  Saxacenic  Architecture. 


Fig.  44. — Bracket  Capital. 


Fig.  45. — Column  from  Ajunta. 


tXG     4b — COLLM>    iKOM   LlLORA 


Fig.  47.— Column  tROM 
Ajunta. 


74  ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Chinese  and  Japanese  Architecture. 

Although  the  Chinese  have  existed  as  a  nation  con- 
tinuously for  between  two  and  three  thousand  years,  if 
not  longer,  and  at  a  very  early  period  had  arrived  at  a 
high  state  of  artistic  and  scientific  cultivation,  yet  none 
of  their  buildings  with  which  we  are  acquainted  has  any 
claim  on  our  attention  because  of  its  antiquity.  Several 
reasons  may  be  assigned  for  this,  the  principal  being  that 
the  Chinese  seem  to  be  as  a  race  singularly  unsusceptible 
to  all  emotions.  Although  they  reverence  their  dead 
ancestors,  yet  this  reverence  never  led  them,  as  did  that 
of  the  Egyptians,  Etruscans,  and  other  nations,  to  a 
lavish  expenditure  of  labour  or  materials,  to  render 
their  tombs  almost  as  enduring  as  the  everlasting  hills. 
Though  waves  of  religious  zeal  must  have  flowed  over 
the  country  when  Confucius  inculcated  his  simple  and 
practical  morality  and  gained  an  influential  following, 
and  again  when  Buddhism  was  introduced  and  speedily 
became  the  religion  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  people, 
their  religious  emotion  never  led  them,  as  it  did  the  Greeks 
and  the  Mediaeval  builders,  to  erect  grand  and  lasting 
monuments  of  sacred  art.  When  most  of  the  Western 
nations  were  still  barbarians,  the  Chinese  had  attained  a 
settled  system  of  government,  and  were  acquainted  with 
numerous  scientific  truths  which  we  have  prided  ourselves 
on  rediscovering  within  the  last  two  centuries ;  but  no 
thought  ever  seems  to  have  occurred  to  them,  as  it  did  to 
the  Romans,  of  commemorating  any  event  connected  with 
their  life  as  a  nation,  or  of  handing  down  to  posterity  a 
record  of  their  great  achievements.  Peaceful  and  pros- 
perous, they  have  pursued  the  even  tenor  of  their  way  at 
a  high  level  of  civilisation  certainly,  but  at  a  most  mono- 
tonous one. 


CHINESE   AKD   JAPANESE.  75 

The  Buddhist  temples  of  China  have  a  strong  affinity 
to  those  of  India.  The  largest  is  that  at  Honan,  the 
southern  suburb  of  Canton.  This  is  306  ft.  long  by  174  ft. 
wide,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  courts  surrounded  by  co- 
lonnades and  cells  for  the  bonzes  or  priests.  In  the  centre 
of  the  courtyard  is  a  series  of  pavilions  or  temples  con- 
nected by  passages,  and  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  idols 
contained  in  them.  On  each  side  of  the  main  court,  against 
the  outer  wall,  is  another  court,  with  buildings  round  it, 
consisting  of  kitchen  and  refectories  on  the  one  side,  and 
hosjiital  wards  on  the  other.  It  is  almost  certain  that  this  is 
a  reproduction  of  the  earlier  forms  of  chaityas  and  viharas 
which  existed  in  India,  and  have  been  already  referred  to. 
The  temple  of  Honan  is  two  storeys  in  height,  the  building 
itself  being  of  stone,  but  the  colonnade  surrounding  it  is  of 
wood  on  marble  bases.  On  the  second  storey  the  columns 
are  placed  on  two  sides  only,  and  not  all  round.  The 
columns  have  no  capitals,  but  have  projecting  brackets. 
The  roof  of  each  storey  projects  over  the  columns,  and 
has  a  curved  section,  which  is,  in  fact,  peculiar  to  Chinese 
roofs,  and  it  is  enriched  at  the  comers  with  carved  beasts 
and  foliage.  This  is  a  very  common  form  of  temple 
throughout  Cliina. 

The  Taas  or  Pagodas  are  the  buildings  of  China  best 
known  to  Europeans.  These  are  nearly  always  octagonal 
in  plan,  and  consist  generally  of  nine  storeys,  diminish- 
ing both  in  height  and  breadth  as  they  approach  the  top. 
Each  storey  has  a  cornice  composed  of  a  fillet  and  large 
hollow  moulding,  supporting  a  roof  which  is  turned  up 
at  every  comer  and  ornamented  with  leaves  and  bells. 
On  the  top  of  all  is  a  long  pole,  forming  a  sort  of  spire, 
suiTounded  by  iron  hoops,  and  supported  by  eight  chains 
attached  to  the  summit  and  to  each  angle  of  the  roof  of 
the  topmost  storey.     The  best  known  pagoda  is  that  of 


76 


ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Nankin,  which  is  40  ft.  in  diameter  at  its  base,  and  is  faced 
inside  and  outside  with  white  glazed  porcelain  slabs  keyed 
into  the  brick  core.  The  roof  tiles  are  also  of  porcelain, 
in  bands  of  green  and  yellow,  and  at  each  angle  is  a  mould- 
ing of  larger  tiles,  red  and  green  alternately.  The  effect 
of  the  whole  is  wonderfully  brilliant  and  dazzling.  Apart 
from  the  coloured  porcelain,  nearly  every  portion  of  a 
Chinese  temple  or  pagoda  is  painted,  colour  forming  the 


Fio.  48.— A  Shall  Pagoda. 

chief  means  of  producing  effect ;  but  as  nearly  everything 
is  constructed  of  wood,  there  was  and  is  no  durability  in 
these  edifices. 

In  public  works  of  utility,  such  as  roads,  canals — 
one  of  which  is  nearly  700  miles  in  length — and  boldly 
designed  bridges,  the  Chinese  seem  to  have  shown  a 
more  enlightened  mind ;  and  the  Great  Wall,  which  was 


CHINESE  AND   JAPANESE.  77 

built  to  protect  the  northern  boundary  of  the  kingdom, 
about  200  B.C.,  is  a  wonderful  example  of  engineering  skill. 
This  wall,  which  varies  from  15  to  30  ft.  in  height,  is 
about  25  ft.  thick  at  the  base,  and  slopes  off  to  20  ft.  at 
the  top.  It  is  defended  by  bastions  placed  at  stated 
intervals,  which  are  40  ft.  square  at  the  base,  and  about  the 
same  in  height ;  the  wall  is  carried  altogether  through  a 
course  of  about  1400  miles,  following  all  the  sinuosities  of 
the  ground  over  which  it  passes.  It  is  a  most  remarkable 
fact  that  a  nation  should  have  existed  2000  years  ago 
capable  of  originating  and  completing  so  great  a  work ;  but 
it  is  still  more  remarkable  that  such  a  nation,  possessing 
moreover,  as  it  does,  a  great  faculty  in  decorative  art 
applied  to  small  articles  of  use  and  fancy,  should  be  still 
leading  a  populous  and  prosperous  existence,  and  yet  should 
have  so  little  to  show  in  the  way  of  architecture,  properly 
so  termed,  at  the  present  time. 

Japan,  like  China,  possesses  an  architecture,  but  one 
exclusively  of  wood;  for  although  the  use  of  stone  for 
bridges,  walls,  &c,  had  been  general,  all  houses  and  temples 
were  invariably  built  of  wood  until  the  recent  employment 
of  foreigners  led  to  the  erection  of  brick  and  stone  buildings. 
The  consequence  has  been  that  nearly  all  the  old  temples 
have  been  burnt  down  and  rebuilt  several  times;  and  though 
it  is  probable  that  the  older  fonns  were  adhered  to  when 
the  buildings  were  re-erected,  it  is  only  by  inference  that 
we  can  form  an  idea  of  the  ancient  architecture  of  the 
country.  The  heavy  curved  roofs  which  are  so  character- 
istic of  Chinese  buildings  are  found  also  in  Japan,  but  only 
in  the  Buddhist  temples,  and  this  makes  it  probable  that 
this  form  of  roof  is  not  of  native  origin,  but  was  introduced 
with  the  Buddhist  cult.  The  earlier  Shinto  temples  have 
u  different  form  of  roof,  which  is  without  the  upward 
curve,  but  Vt^hich  has  nearly  as  much  projection  at  the 


78  ORIENTAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

eaves  as  the  curved  roofs.  Where  the  buildings  are  more 
than  one  storey  in  height  the  upper  one  is  always  set  some- 
what back,  as  we  saw  was  the  case  in  the  Chinese  pagodas, 
and  considerable  and  pleasing  variety  is  obtained  by  treat- 
ing the  two  storeys  differently.  Very  great  skill  in  carving 
is  shown,  all  the  posts,  brackete,  beams,  and  projecting 
rafters  being  formed  into  elaborate  representations  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  or  quaintly  conceived  grotesques ;  and  the 
flat  surfaces  have  frequently  a  shallow  incised  arabesque 
pattern  intertwined  with  foliage.  The  roofs  are  always 
covered  with  tiles,  and  a  curious  effect  is  produced  by 
enriching  the  hips  and  ridges  with  several  courses  of  tiles 
in  cement,  thus  making  them  rise  considerably  above 
the  other  portions  of  the  roof.  A  peculiar  feature  of 
Japanese  houses  is  that  the  walls,  whether  external  or 
internal,  are  not  filled  in  with  plaster,  but  are  constructed 
of  movable  screens  which  slide  in  grooves  formed  in  the 
framing  of  the  partitions.  Thus  all  the  rooms  can  easily 
be  thrown  together  or  laid  open  to  the  outer  air  in  hot 
weather.  All  travellers  in  Japan  remark  upon  the  im- 
possibility of  obtaining  privacy  in  the  hotels  in  conse- 
quence of  this. 

The  Shinto  temples  are  approached  through  what  might 
be  termed  an  archway,  only  that  the  arch  does  not  enter 
into  its  composition.  This  erection  is  called  a  Torii,  and 
is  thus  described  by  Professor  Conder  :*^  "  It  is  composed 
of  two  upright  posts  of  great  thickness,  each  consisting 
of  the  whole  trunk  of  a  tree  rounded,  about  15  ft.  high, 
and  placed  12  ft.  apart.  Across  the  top  of  these  is  i:)laced 
a  wooden  lintel,  projecting  considerably  and  curving 
upwards  at  the  ends.  Some  few  feet  below  this  another 
horizontal  piece  is  tenoned  into  the  uprights,  having  a 

*  Paper  communicated  to  the  Royal  Institute  of  Architects. 


CHrNESE   AND   JAPANESE.  79 

little  post  in  the  centre  helping  to  support  the  upper 
lintel."  These  erections  occasionally  occur  in  front  of  a 
Buddhist  temple,  when  they  are  built  of  stone,  exactly 
imitating,  however,  the  wooden  originals.  This  is  interest- 
ing, as  offering  another  proof,  were  one  needed,  that  the 
curious  forms  of  masonry  exhibited  in  much  of  the  work  of 
the  early  nations,  some  of  which  has  been  described,  is  the 
result  of  an  imitation  of  earlier  wooden  forms. 

The  chief  effect  in  the  buildings  of  the  Japanese  is 
intended  to  be  produced  by  colour,  which  is  profusely 
used;  and  they  have  attained  to  a  height  of  perfection 
in  the  preparation  of  varnishes  and  lacquers  that  has 
never  been  equalled.  Their  lacquer  is  used  all  over  their 
buildings,  besides  forming  their  chief  means  of  decorating 
small  objects.  It  is,  however,  beginning  to  be  questioned 
whether  the  old  art  of  lacquering  is  not  becoming  lost  by 
the  Japanese  themselves,  as  the  modern  work  appears  by 
no  means  equal  to  the  old.  One  curious  form  of  decora- 
tion, of  which  the  Japanese  are  much  enamoured,  consists 
in  forming  miniature  representations  of  country  scenes  and 
landscapes;  waterfalls,  bridges,  &c.,  being  reproduced  on 
the  most  diminutive  scale.  It  is  much  to  be  feared  that 
our  small  stock  of  knowledge  of  ancient  Japanese  art  will 
never  be  greatly  increased,  as  the  whole  country  and  the 
people  are  becoming  modernised  and  Europeanised  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  apjiears  probable  there  will  soon  be  little 
indigenous  art  left  in  the  country'. 

It  Ijas  not  been  thoiiglit  necessary  to  append  to  this  chapter 
analyses  of  the  Eastern  styles  similar  to  those  which  are  given  in  the 
case  of  tlie  great  divisions  of  Western  Architecture.  The  notice  of 
these  styles  must  unavoidably  be  condensed  into  very  small  space. 


Fig.  49.— Gkeek  Hosetslckle  Ornament. 


CHAPTER  V. 


GREEK   ARCHITECTURE. 


/ 


,'  Buildings  of  the  Doric  Order. 

'T~^HE  arcliitecture  of  Greece  has  a  value  far  higher  than 
X  that  attaching  to  any  of  the  styles  which  preceded 
it,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  the  buildings  and  the 
astonishing  refinement  which  the  best  of  them  display. 
This  architecture  has  a  further  claim  on  our  attention,  as 
being  virtually  the  parent  of  that  of  all  the  nations  of 
\\  estem  Europe.  We  cannot  put  a  finger  upon  any  features 
of  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  or  Persian  architecture,  the  influence 
of  which  has  survived  to  the  present  day,  except  such  as 
were  adopted  by  the  Greeks.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
no  feature,  no  ornament,  nor  even  any  principle  of  design 
which  the  Greek  architects  employed,  that  can  be  said  to 
have  now  become  obsolete.  Not  only  do  we  find  direct 
reproductions  of  Greek  architecture  forming  part  of  the 
practice  of  every  European  country,  but  we  are  able  to 
trace  to  Greek  art  the  parentage  of  many  of  the  forms  and 
features  of  Eoman,  Byzantine,  and  Gothic  architecture, 


V 


GREEK   DORIC.  '    ^  81 

especially  those  connected  with  the  column  and  which  grew 
out  of  its  artistic  use.  Greek  architecture  did  not  include 
the  arch  and  all  the  forms  allied  to  it,  such  as  the  vault 
and  the  dome ;  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  Greeks  ab- 
stained from  the  use  of  the  tower.  Examples  of  both 
these  features  were,  it  is  almost  certain,  as  fully  within 
the  knowledge  of  the  Greeks  as  were  those  features  of 
Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Persian  buildings  which  they 
employed ;  consequently  it  is  to  deliberate  selection  that 
we  must  attribute  this  exclusion.  Within  the  limits  by 
which  they  confined  themselves,  the  Greeks  worked  with 
such  power,  learning,  taste,  and  skill  that  we  may  fairly 
claim  for  their  highest  achievement — the  Parthenon — 
that  it  advanced  as  near  to  absolute  perfection  as  any 
work  of  art  ever  has  been  or  ever  can  be  carried. 

Greek  architecture  seems  to  have  begun  to  emerge  from 
the  stage  of  archaic  simplicity  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era  (600  b.c.  is  the 
reputed  date  of  the  old  Doric  Temple  at  Corinth).  All 
the  finest  examples  were  erected  between  that  date  and 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (333  B.C.),  after  which 
\j'     period  it  declined  and  ultimately  gave  place  to  Eoman. 

The  domestic  and  palatial  buildings  of  the  Greeks  have 
decayed  or  been  destroyed,  leaving  but  few  vestiges.  We 
know  their  architecture  exclusively  from  ruins  of  public 
buildings,  and  to  a  limited  extent  of  sepulchral  monuments 
remaining  in  Greece  and  in  Greek  colonies.  By  far  the 
most  numerous  and  excellent  among  these  buildings  are 
temples.  The  Greek  idea  of  a  temple  was  different  from 
that  entertained  by  the  Egyptians.  The  building  was  to 
a  much  greater  extent  designed  for  external  effect  than 
internal.  A  comparatively  small  sacred  cell  was  provided 
for  the  reception  of  the  image  of  the  divinity,  usually  Avith 

G 


82 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


one  other  cell  behind  it,  which  seems  to  have  served  as 
treasuiy  or  sacristy ;  but  there  were  no  surrounding 
chambers,  gloomy  halls,  or  enclosed  courtyards,  like  those 
of  the  Egyptian  temples,  visible  only  to  persons  admitted 
within  a  jealously  guarded  outer  wall.  The  temple,  it  is 
true,  often  stood  within  some  sort  of  precinct,  but  it  was 
accessible  to  all.  It  stood  open  to  the  sun  and  air ;  it 
invited  the  admiration  of  the  passer-by ;  its  most  telling 
features  and  best  sculpture  were  on  the  exterior. vWhether 
tliis  may  have  been,  to  some  extent,  the  case  with  Persian 
buildings,  we  have  few  means  of  knowing,  but  certainly 
the  attention  paid  by  the  Greeks  to  the  outside  of  their 
temples  offers  a  striking  contrast  to  the  practice  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  to  what  we  know  of  that  of  the  Assyrians. 


Fig.  50. — Plan  of  a  small  Greek  Temple  in  Antis. 


The  temple,  however  grand,  was  always  of  simple  form, 
with  a  gable  at  each  end,  and  in  this  respect  differed 
entirely  from  the  series  of  halls,  courts,  and  chambers  of 
which  a  great  Egyptian  temple  consisted.  In  the  very 
smallest  temple  at  least  one  of  the  gables  was  made  into  a 
portico  by  the  help  of  columns  and  two  pilasters  (Fig.  50). 
]\luie  important  temples  had  a  larger  number  of  columns, 


GREEK   DORIC.  o6 

and  often  a  portico  at  each  end  (Figs.  50a  and  55).  Tlio 
most  important  had  columns  on  the  flanks  as  well  as  at  the 
front -and  rear,  the  sacred  cell  being,  in  fact,  suiTOunded 
by  them.  It  will  be  apparent  from  this  that  the  column, 
together  with  the  superstructure  which  rested  upon  it, 
must  have  played  a  very  important  part  in  Greek  temple- 
architecture,  and  an  inspection  of  any  representations  of 
Greek  buildings  will  at  once  confirm  the  impression. 


Fig.  50a. — Plan  of  a  small  Gkeek  Temple, 

We  find  in  Greece  three  distinct  manners,  distinguished 
largely  by  the  mode  in  which  the  column  is  dealt  with. 
These  it  would  be  quite  consistent  to  call  "styles,"  wei'« 
it  not  that  another  name  has  been  so  thoroughly  appro- 
priated to  them,  that  they  would  hardly  now  be  re- 
cognised were  they  to  be  spoken  of  as  anything  else  than 
"  orders,"  The  Greek  orders  are  named  the  Doric,  Ionic, 
and  Corinthian.  Each  of  them  presents  a  different  series 
of  proportions,  mouldings,  features,  and  ornaments,  though 
the  main  forms  of  the  buildings  are  the  same  in  all.  The 
column  and  its  entablature  (the  technical  name  for  the 
frieze,  architrave,  and  cornice,  forming  the  usual  super- 
structure) being  the  most  prominent  features  in  every. 

G  2 


84  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

pncli  biiilding,  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  index  or 
characteristic  from  an  inspection  of  which  the  order  and 
the  degree  of  its  development  can  be  recognised,  just  as 
a  botanist  recognises  plants  by  their  flowers.  By  repro- 
ducing the  column  and  entablature,  almost  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  either  of  the  orders  can  be  copied  ;  and  hence 
a  technical  and  somewhat  unfortunate  use  of  the  word 
"  order  "  to  signify  these  features  only  has  crept  in,  and  has 
overshadowed  and  to  a  large  extent  displaced  its  wider 
meaning.  It  is  difficult  in  a  book  on  architecture  to 
avoid  employing  the  word  "  order  "  when  we  have  to  speak 
of  a  column  and  its  entablature,  because  it  has  so  often 
been  made  use  of  in  this  sense.  The  student  must,  how- 
ever, always  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  a  restricted  and 
artificial  sense  of  the  word,  and  that  the  column  belonging 
to  any  order  is  always  accompanied  by  the  use  throughout 
the  building  of  the  appropriate  proportions,  ornaments, 
and  mouldings  belonging  to  that  order. 

The  origin  of  Greek  architecture  is  a  very  interesting 
subject  for  inquiry,  but,  owing  to  the  disappearance  of 
almost  all  very  early  examples  of  the  styles,  it  is  neces- 
sarilj-  obscure.  Such  information,  however,  as  we  possess, 
taken  together  with  the  internal  evidence  afforded  by  the 
features  of  the  matured  style,  points  to  the  influence  of 
Egypt,  to  that  of  Assyria  and  Persia,  and  to  an  early 
manner  of  timber  construction — the  forms  proper  to 
which  were  retained  in  spite  of  the  abandonment  of 
timber  for  marble — as  all  contributing  to  the  formation 
of  Greek  architecture. 

In  Asia  Minor  a  series  of  monuments,  many  of  them 
rock-cut,  has  been  discovered,  which  throw  a  curious 
light  upom  the  early  growth  of  architecture.  We  refer 
to  tombs   found  in  Lycia,  and  attributed  to  about  the 


GREEK  DORIC.  85 

seventh  century  b.c.  In  these  we  obviously  have  the 
first  work  in  stone  of  a  nation  of  ship-builders.  A  Lycian 
tomb — such  as  the  one  now  to  be  seen,  accurately  restored, 
in  the  British  Museum — represents  a  structure  of  beams 
of  wood  framed  together,  surmounted  by  a  roof  which 
closely  resembles  a  boat  turned  upside  down.  The  planks, 
the  beams  to  which  they  were  secured,  and  even  a  ridge 
similar  to  the  keel  of  a  vessel,  all  reappear  here,  showing 
that  the  material  in  use  for  building  was  so  universally 
timber,  that  when  the  tomb  was  to  be  "  graven  in  the  rock 
for  ever  "  the  forms  of  a  timber  structure  were  those  that 
presented  themselves  to  the  imagination  of  the  sculptor. 
In  other  instances  the  I'esemblance  to  shipwrights'  work 
disappears,  and  that  of  a  carpenter  is  followed  by  that  of 
the  mason.  Thus  we  find  imitations  of  timber  beams 
framed  together  and  of  overhanging  low-pitched  roofs, 
in  some  cases  carried  on  unsquared  rafters  lying  side  by 
side,  in  several  of  these  tombs. 

What  happened  on  the  Asiatic  shore  of  the  Egean  must 
have  occurred  on  the  Greek  shores ;  and  though  none  of 
the  very  earliest  specimens  of  reproduction  in  stone  of 
timber  structures  has  come  down  to  us,  there  are  abundant 
traces,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  of  timber  originals  in 
buildings  of  the  Doric  order.  Timber  originals  were  not, 
however,  the  only  sources  from  which  the  early  inhabit- 
ants of  Greece  drew  their  inspiration. 

Constructions  of  extreme  antiquity,  and  free  from  any 
appearance  of  imitating  structures  of  timber,  mark  the  sites 
of  the  oldest  cities  of  Greece,  Mycenae  and  Orchomenos  for 
example,  the  most  ancient  being  Pelasgic  city  walls  of  un- 
wroxight  stone  (Fig.  51).  The  so-called  Treasury  of  Atreus 
at  Mycense,  a  circixlar  underground  chamber  48  ft.  6  in. 
in  diameter,  and  with  a  pointed  vault,  is  a  well-known 
specimen  of  more  regular  yet  archaic  building.     Its  vault 


86- 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


is  constructed  of  stones  corbelling  over  one  another,  and 
is  not  a  true  arch  (Figs.  52,  52a).  The  treatment  of  an 
ornamental  column  found  here,  and  of  the  remains  of 


Fig.  61. — Akcient  Greek  Wall  of  Dnwbouqht  Stone  raou  Sahotbrace. 


ViO    ,p.  — 1  I   \N  111    1  111    ill  A-t  BY 
OF    ATIkLLS  AT   M1v.L.N;E. 


Fig.  52a. — Section  op  the  'I'REAsuitT  of 

ATREUS   AT  MrCENiE. 


sculptured  ornaments  over  a  neighbouring  gateway  called 
the  Gate  of  the  Lions,  is  of  very  Asiatic  character,  and 
seems  to  show  that  whatever  influences  had  been  brought 
to  bear  on  their  design  were  Oriental. 


GREEK   DORIC. 


87 


A  wide  interval  of  time  and  a  great  contrast  in  taste 
separate  the  early  works  of  Pelasgic  masonry  and  even 
the  chamber  at  Mycenae  from  even  the  rudest  and  niost 
archaic  of  the  remaining  Hellenic  works  of  Greece.     The 


7 


Fig.  53, 


Grekk  Doric  Capital 
FROM  Selinus. 


t'lG.  53a. — GuEEK  Doric 
Capital  from  the  Tue.selm. 


Fig.  53b. — Greek  Doric  Capital  fbom  Samothrace. 


Doric  temple  at  Corinth  is  attributed,  as  has  been  stated, 
to  the  seventh  century  B.C.  This  was  a  massive  masonry 
structure  with  extremely  short,  stumpy  columns,  and 
strong  mouldings,  but  presenting  the  main  features  of  the 
Doric  style,  as  we  know  it,  in  its  earliest  and  rudest  form. 


/ 


88  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

iSuccessive  examples  (Figs.  53  to  53b)  show  increasing 
slenderness  of  proportions  and  refinement  of  treatment, 
and  are  accompanied  by  sculpture  which  approaches  nearer 
and  nearer  to  perfection ;  but  in  the  later  and  best  build- 
ings, as  in  the  earliest  and  yudest,  certain  forms  are 
retained  for  which  it  seems  impossible  to  account,  except 
on  the  supposition  that  they  are  reproductions  in  stone  or 
marble  of  a  timber  construction.  These  occur  in  the  en- 
tablature, while  the  column  is  of  a  type  which  it  is  hard  to 
believe  is  not  copied  from  originals  in  use  in  Egypt  many 
nturies  earlier,  and  already  described  (chap.  ii.). 
We  will  now  proceed  to  examine  a  fully-developed 
Greek  Doric  temple  of  the  best  period,  and  in  doing .  so 
we  shall  be  able  to  recognise  the  forms  referred  to  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  as  we  come  to  them.  ^  The  most  com- 
plete Greek  Doric  temple  was  the  Parthenon,  the  work  of 
the  architect  Ictinus,  the  temple  of  the  Virgin  Goddess 
Athene  (Minerva)  at  Athens,  and  on  many  accounts  this 
building  will  be  the  best  to  select  for  our  purpose.* 

The  Parthenon  at  Athens  stood  on  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
rock,  and  within  an  irregularly  shaped  enclosure,  something 
like  a  cathedral  close ;  entered  through  a  noble  gateway.f 
The  temple  itself  was  of  perfectly  regular  plan,  and  stood 
(j[uite  free  from  dependencies  of  any  sort.  It  consisted  of 
a  cella,  or  sacred  cell,  in  which  stood  the  statue  of  the 
goddess,  with  one  chamber  (the  treasury)  behind.  In  the 
cella,  and  also  in  the  chamber  behind,  there  were  columns. 
A  series  of  columns  surrounded  this  building,  and  at 
either  end  was  a  portico,  eight  columns  wide,  and  two 
deep.  There  were  two  pediments,  or  gables,  of  flat 
l)itch,  one  at  each  end.     The  whole  stood  on  a  basement 

*  See  Frontispiece  and  Figs.  5i  and  55.  t  The  Propylaea. 


90 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  steps ;    the   building,   exclusive   of  the   steps,   being 
228  ft.  long  by  101  ft.  wide,  and  64  ft.  high.     The  columns 


Fio.  55. — Plan  of  the  Parthekon  at  Atheks. 

were  each  34  ft.  3  in.  high,  and  more  than  6  ft.  in  diameter 
at  the  base ;  a  portion  of  the  shaft  and  of  the  capital  of 


CPidi 


if- 


GREEK  DORIC. 


91 


one  is  in  the  British  Museum,  and  a  magnificent  repro- 
duction, full  size,  of  the  column  and  its  entablature  may 
be  seen  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris.  The  orna- 
ments consisted  almost  exclusively  of  sculpture  of  the 
very  finest  quality,  executed  by  or  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  Pheidias,  Of  this  sculpture  many  specimens 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 


Fig.  56. — The  Roof  of  a  Gbeek  Doeic  Temple,  showisg  the  Marble  Tilfjs. 

The  construction  of  this  temple  was  of  the  most  solid 
and  durable  kind,  marble  being  the  material  used ;  and 
the  workmanship  was  most  careful  in  every  part  of  which 
remains  have  come  down  to  us.  The  roof  was,  no  doubt, 
made  of  timber  and  covered  with  marble  tiles  (Fig.  56), 
carried  on  a  timber  framework,  all  traces  of  which  have  en- 
tirely perished ;  and  the  mode  in  which  it  was  constructed 
is  a  subject  upon  which  authorities  differ,  especially  as 


92 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


to  what  provision  was  made  for  the  admission  of  light. 
The  internal  columns,  found  in  other  temples  as  well 
as  in  the  Parthenon,  were  no  doubt  employed  to  support 
this  roof,  as  is  shown  in  Botticher's  restoration  of  the 
Temple  at  Paestum  which  we  reproduce  (Fig.  56a),  though 
without  pledging  ourselves  to  its  accuracy ;  for,  indeed,  it 


Fig.  66a. — Section  of  the  Gbeek  Doric  Temple  at  P.sstum.    As  bestoued  bv 
Botticheb. 


seems  probable  that  something  more  or  less  like  the  clere- 
story of  a  Gothic  church  must  have  been  employed  to 
admit  light  to  these  buildings,  as  we  know  was  the  case 
in  the  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Karnak.  But  this  structure,  if 
it  existed,  has  entirely  disappeared.* 

The  order  of  the  Parthenon  was  Doric,  and  the  lead- 
ing proportions  were  as  follows : — The  column  was  5*56 

*  Mr.  Fergusson's  investigations,  soon,  it  is  understood,  to  be  published 
in  a  complete  form,  clearly  show  that  the  clerestory  and  roof  -can  be 
restored  with  the  greatest  probability. 


Cor-    /  Ovolo. 
nice  I  Corona. 


Pediment  .    . 


Corona  .    .    . 
Mutuies     .    . 


Frieze  with  tri- 
plyplis  t  mt- 
tojiea ,    .     .     . 


Fillet  with  ■"ir^-"'^.i^b^'-|S'.5i5i5iaH'jrs5-6-J6-.5a;sirjip-ji'5iy,y^^ 


«— luuiUL^a 


„    ■    ,fAha. 


Shaft  or  Colnnin 


Sfylobate 


fiaiJUCJI_IU^ 


^DBBvni 


''' '  °      ^  I' 


Fig.  57.— The  Greek  Dome  Ouuek  fkom  the  Tiiicbelm. 


94  CLASSIC  AECHITECTUEE. 

diameters  high. ;  the  whole  height,  including  the  stylobate 
or  step^,  might  be  divided  into  nine  parts,  of  which  two 
go  to  the  stylobate,  six  to  the  column,  and  one  to  the 
entablature. 
V  The  Greek  Doric  order  is  w,^thout  a  base ;  the  shaft  of 
the  column  springs  from  the  top  step  and  tapers  towards 
the  top,  the  outline  being  not,  however,  straight,  but  of  a 
subtle  curve,  known  technically  as  the  entasis  of  the 
column.  This  shaft  is  channelled  with  twenty  shallow 
channels,*  the  ridges  separating  one  from  another  being 


Fig.  59. — The  Fillets 

UNDEB  A  Greek  Dome 

Capital. 


Fig.  68. — Plan  of  a  UbeeK 
DoBic  Column. 


very  fine  lines.  A  little  below  the  moulding  of  the 
capital,  fine  sinkings,  forming  lines  round  the  shaft,  exist, 
and  above  these  the  channels  of  the  flutes  are  stopped 
by  or  near  the  commencement  of  the  projecting  moulding 
of  the  capital.  This  moulding,  which  is  of  a  section 
calculated  to  convey  the  idea  of  powerful  support,  is 
called  the  echinus,  and  its  lower  portion  is  encircled  by  a 
series,  of  ;fillets  (,yjg.,  ^9),  which  are  cut  into  it.  Above 
the  ecKinTi^,  V^iiWi  is;  circular,  like  the  shaft,*  comes  the 
highest  member  —  tlie  abacus,  A  iscfoaie  stoat  slab  of 
marble,  vrhfQli ?cdtafpJete^  tfe  <;ap)tal  lof'-the  column.     The 

*  In  a  few  instances  a  smaller  iiaml)er  is  found. 


GREEK  BORIC. 


95 


whole  is  most  skilfully  designed  to  convey  the  idea  of 
sturdy  support,  and  yet  to  clothe  the  support  with  grace. 
The  strong  proportions  of  the  shaft,  the  slight  curve 
of  its  outline,  the  lines  traced  upon  its  surface  by  the 
channels,  and  even  the  vigorous  uncompromising  planting 
of  it  on  the  square  step  from  which  it  springs,  all  contri- 
bute to  make  the  column  look  strong.  The  check  given 
to  the  vigorous  upward  lines  of  the  channels  on  the  shaft 
by  the  first  sinkings,  and  their  arrest  at  the  point  where 
the  capital  spreads  out,  intensified  as  it  is  by  the  series  of 


Fig.  60. — Capital  of  a  Greek  Doric  Column  from  .iEgina, 
with  coloured  decoration. 


horizontal  lines  drawn  round  the  echinus  by  the  fillets 
cut  into  it,  all  seem  to  convey  the  idea  of  spreading  the 
supporting  energy  of  the  column  outwards ;  and  the  abacus 
appears  naturally  fitted,  itself  inert,  to  receive  a  burden 
placed  upon  it  and  to  transmit  its  pressure  to  the  capital 
and  shaft  below. 

The  entablature  which  formed  the  superstructure  con- 
sisted first  of  a  square  marble  beam — the  architrave, 
which,  it  may   be  assumed,  represents  a  square  timber 


96  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

beam  that  occupied   the  same  position  in  the  primitive 


T 


5m5l5\aSUil5l5\ST51SlS15\Sl5U15T5t5 


Fig.  61. — Section  of  the  Entablature  ok  thk  Ukeek.  Doric  Order 


Fig.    62. — Fl^N,  LOOKING    Ur,  of   part  of   a  UUBEK  DOIUU  I'EiUSTXUi. 

structures.      On  this  rests  a  second   member  called  the 
frieze,   the   prominent    feature   of  which  is   a  series  of 


GREEK  DORIC. 


97 


slightly  projecting  features,  known  as  triglyphs  (three 
channels)  (Fig.  63),  from  the  channels  running  down 
their  face.  These  closely  resemble,  and  no  doubt  actually 
represent,  the  ends  of  massive  timber  beams,  which  must 
have  connected  the  colonnade  to  the  wall  of  the  cell  in 
earlier  buildings.  At  the  bottom  of  each  is  a  row  of 
small  pendants,  known  as  guttaa,  which  closely  resemble 
wooden  pins,  such  as  would  be  used  to  keep  a  timber 
beam  in  place.      The   panels  between  the  triglyphs  are 


IrS 


r\ 


m  I 


i^.z\_^^:^^^ 


Fig.  63. — Detaiij>  of  tiu;  'I'KiGLYrH. 


Fig.  64.— DKTAir.s  of  the 

MLTL'LES. 


usually  as  wide  as  they  are  high.  They  are  termed 
metopes,  and  sculpture  commonly  occuiDies  them.  The 
third  division  of  the  entablature,  the  cornice,  represents 
the  overhanging  eaves  of  the  roof. 

The  cornices  employed  in  classic  architecture  may  be 
almost  invariably  subdivided  into  three  parts  :  the  support- 
ing part,  which  is  the  lowest, — the  projecting  part,  which  is 
the  middle, — and  the  crowning  part,  which  is  the  highest 
division  of  the  cornice.  The  supporting  part  in  a  Greek 
Doric  cornice  is  extremely  small.    There  are  no  mouldings, 


98  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

such  as  we  shall  find  in  almost  every  other  cornice, 
calculated  to  convey  the  idea  of  contributing  to  sustain 
the  projection  of  the  cornice,  but  there  are  slabs  of  marble, 
called  mutules  (Fig.  64),  dropping  towards  the  outer  end, 
of  which  one  is  placed  over  each  triglyph  and  one  between 
every  two.  These  seem  to  lecall,  by  their  shape,  their 
position,  and  their  slope  alike,  the  ends  of  the  rafters  of 
a  timber  roof;  and  their  surface  is  covered  with  small  pro- 
jections which  resemble  the  heads  of  wooden  pins,  similar 
to  those  already  alluded  to.  The  projecting  part,  in  this 
as  in  almost  all  cornices,  is  a  plain  upright  face  of  some 
height,  called  "  the  corona,"  and  recalling  probably  a 
"  facia  "  or  flat  narrow  board  such  as  a  carpenter  of  the 
present  day  would  use  in  a  similar  position,  secured  in  the 
original  structure  to  the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  support- 
ing the  eaves.  Lastly,  the  crowning  part  is,  in  the  Greek 
Doric,  a  single  convex  moulding,  not  very  dissimilar  in 
profile  to  the  ovolo  of  the  capital,  and  forming  what  we 
commonly  call  an  eaves-gutter. 

At  the  ends  of  the  building  the  two  upper  divisions  of 
the  cornice — namely,  the  projecting  corona  and  the  crown- 
ing ovolo — are  made  to  follow  the  sloping  line  of  the  gable, 
a  second  corona  being  also  carried  across  horizontally  in  a 
manner  which  can  be  best  understood  by  inspecting  a 
diagram  of  the  comer  of  a  Greek  Doric  building  (Fig.  57) ; 
and  the  triangular  space  thus  formed  was  termed  a  pedi- 
ment, and  was  the  position  in  which  the  finest  of  the  sculp- 
ture with  which  the  building  was  enriched  was  placed. 

In  the  Parthenon  a  continuous  band  of  sculpture  ran 
round  the  exterior  of  the  cell,  near  the  top  of  the  wall. 

One  other  feature  was  employed  in  Greek  temple-archi- 
tecture. The  anta  was  a  square  pillar  or  pier  of  masonry 
attached  to  the  wall,  and  corresponded  very  closely  to  our 


GREEK    DORIC.  99 

pilaster ;  but  its  capital  always  diiFered  from  that  of  the 
columns  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  it  was  employed. 
The  anta3  of  the  Greek  Doric  order,  as  employed  in  the 
Parthenon,  have  a  moulded  base,  which  it  will  be  re- 
membered is  not  the  case  with  the  column,  and  their 
capital  has  for  its  principal  feature  an  under-cut  mould- 
ing, known  as  the  bird's  beak,  quite  dissimilar  from  the 
ovolo  of  the  capital  of  the  column  (Fig.  65).  Sometimes 
the  portico  of  a  temple  consisted  of  the  side  walls  pro- 
longed, and  ending  in  two  autre,  with  two  or  more  columns 
standing  between  them.  Such  a  portico  is  said  to  be  in 
antis. 


Fig.  65. — Elevation  and  Section  ok  thr  Capital  of  a  Gkeek  Akta, 
with  colouued  decoration. 

The  Parthenon  joresents  examples  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary refinements  in  order  to  correct  optical  illusions. 
The  delicacy  and  subtlety  of  these  are  extreme,  but  there 
can  be  no  manner  of  doubt  that  they  existed.  The  best 
known  correction  is  the  diminution  in  diameter  or  taper,' 
and  the  entasis  or  convex  curve  of  the  tapered  outline  of  the 
shaft  of  the  column.  Without  the  taper,  which  is  per- 
ceptible enough  in  the  order  of  this  building,  and  much 
more  marked  in  the  order  of  earlier  buildings,  the  columns 
would  look  top-heavy ;  but  the  entasis  is  an  additional 
optical  correction  to  prevent  their  outline  from  appearing 
hollowed,  which  it  would  have  done  had  there  been  no  curve. 
The  columns  of  the  Parthenon  have  shafts  that  are  over 
C4ft.  high,  and  diminish  from  a   diameter  of  6-15  ft.  at 

H  2 


100  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  bottom  to  4-81  ft.  at  the  top.  The  outline  between 
these  points  is  convex,  but  so  slightly  so  that  the  curve 
departs  at  the  point  of  greatest  curvature  not  more  than 
f  in.  from  the  straight  line  joining  the  top  and  bottom. 
Tliis  is,  however,  just  sufficient  to  correct  the  tendency  to 
look  hollow  in  the  middle. 

A  second  correction  is  intended  to  overcome  the  appa- 
rent tendency  of  a  building  to  spread  outwards  towards 
the  top.  This  is  met  by  inclining  the  columns  slightly 
inwards.  So  slight,  however,  is  the  inclination,  that  were 
the  axes  of  two  columns  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Par- 
thenon continued  upwards  till  they  met,  the  meeting- 
point  would  be  1952  yards,  or,  in  other  words,  more  than 
one  mile  from  the  ground. 

Another  optical  correction  is  applied  to  the  horizontal 
lines.  In  order  to  overcome  a  tendency  which  exists  in  all 
long  lines  to  seem  as  though  they  droop  in  the  middle, 
the  lines  of  the  architrave,  of  the  top  step,  and  of  other 
horizontal  features  of  the  building,  are  all  slightly  curved. 
The  difference  between  the  outline  of  the  top  step  of  the 
Parthenon  and  a  straight  line  joining  its  two  ends  is  at 
the  greatest  only  just  over  2  inches. 

The  last  correction  which  it  is  necessary  to  name  here 
was  applied  to  the  vertical  proportions  of  the  building. 
The  principles  upon  which  this  con-ection  rests  have  been 
demonstrated  by  Mr.  John  Pennethorne  ;*  and  it  would 
hardly  come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume  to  attempt 
to  state  them  here  :  suffice  it  to  say,  that  small  addi- 
tions, amounting  in  the  entire  height  of  the  order  to  less 
than  5  inches,  were  made  to  the  heights  of  the  various 
members  of  the  order,  with  a  view  to  secure  that  from 
one  definite  point  of  view  the  effect  of  foreshortening 
*  '  Geometry  and  Optics  of  Ancient  Architecture.' 


^ 


^ 


GREEK   DORIC.  101 

should  be  exactly  compensated,  and  so  tlie  building  should 
appear  to  the  spectator  to  be  perfectly  proportioned. 

The  Parthenon,  like  many,  if  not  all  Greek  buildings, 
was  profusely  decorated  with  coloured  ornaments,  of  which 
nearly  every  trace  has  now  disappeared,  but  which  must 
have  contributed  largely  to  the  splendid  beauty  of  the 
building  as  a  whole,  and  must  have  emphasised  and  set 
oif  its  parts.  The  ornaments  known  as  Doric  frets  were 
largely  employed.  They  consist  of  patterns  made  entirely 
of  straight  lines  interlacing,  and,  while  preserving  the 
severity  which  is  characteristic  of  the  style,  they  permit 
of  the  introduction  of  considerable  richness. 

The  principal  remaining  examples  or  fragments  of  Greek 
Doric  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : — 

Ik  Gkeece. 

Temple  of  (?)  Athena,  at  Corinth,  ab.  650  B.C. 

Temple  of  (?)  Zeus,  in  the  island  of  iEgina,  ab.  550  B.C. 

Temple  of  Theseus  (Theseium),  at  Athens,  465  b.c. 

Temple  of  Athena  (Parthenon),  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  fin.  438  B.C. 

The  Propylsea,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  436-431  B.C. 

Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 

Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Bassae,*  in  Arcadia  (designed  by  Ictinus). 

Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius,  at  Phigaleia,  in  Arcadia  (built  by  Ictinus). 

Temple  of  Athena,  on  the  rock  of  Sunium,  in  Attica. 

Temple  of  Nemesis,  at  Ehamnus,  in  Attica. 

Temple  of  Denieter  (Ceres),  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica. 

In  Sicily  and  South  Italt. 

Temple  of  (?)  Zeus,  at  Agrigentum,  in  Sicily  (begim  b.c.  480). 

Temple  at  .^gesta  (or  Segesta),  in  Sicily. 

Temple  of  (?)  Zeus,  at  Selinus,  in  Sicily  (?  ab.  410  B.C.). 

Temple  of  (?)  Athena,  at  Syracuse,  in  Sicily. 

Temple  of  Poseidon,  at  Paestum,  in  South  of  Italy  (?  ab.  550  B.C.). 


*  ?  Exterior  Doric — Interior  Ionic. 


KlC.    66. — I'ALMKTTE   AND    HONEiSUi  KLK. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. 

Buildings  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders. 

THE  Doric  was  the  order  in  which  the  full  strength  and 
the  complete  refinement  of  the  artistic  character  of 
the  Greeks  were  most  completely  shown.  There  was  a  great 
deal  of  the  spirit  of  severe  dignity  proper  to  Egyptian 
art  in  its  aspect;  but  other  nationalities  contributed  to 
the  formation  of  the  many-sided  Greek  nature,  and  we 
must  look  to  some  other  country  than  Egypt  for  the  spirit 
which  inspired  the  Ionic  order.  This  seems  to  have  been 
brought  into  Greece  by  a  distinct  race,  and  shows  marks 
of  an  Asiatic  origin.  The  feature  which  is  most  dis- 
tinctive is  the  one  most  distinctly  Eastern — the  capital  of 
the  column,  ornamented  always  by  volutes,  i.e.  scrolls, 
Avhich  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  features  similarly 
employed  in  the  columns  found  at  Persepolis.  The  same 
resemblance  can  be  also  detected  in  the  moulded  bases, 
and  even  the  shafts  of  the  columns,  and  in  many  of  the 
ornaments  employed  throughout  the  buildings. 


GREEK   IONIC. 


103 


In  form  and  disposition  an  ordinary  Ionic  temple  was 
similar  to  one  of  the  Doric  order,  but  the  general  propor- 
tions are  more  slender,  and  the  mouldings  of  the  order 
are  more  numerous  and  more  profusely  enriched.  The 
column  in  the  Ionic  order  had  a  base,  often  elaborately 


Frc.  67. — Shaht  of  Ionic 
Column  showing  the  Flutes. 


Flli.   ti9. —  loMC   CaIMTAL.      SlUE 

Elevation. 


1 

i 
1 

^~i 

T 

Fig.  6s. — Ionic  Cai-ital.    Fkont  J^.i.kvation. 


-and  sometimes  singularly  moulded  (Figs.  74,  75).  The 
shaft  (Figs.  67,  70)  is  of  more  slender  proportions  than 
the  Doric  shaft.  It  was  fluted,  but  its  channels  are  more 
numerous,  and  are  separated  from  one  another  by  broader 

\ 


104  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

fillets  than  in  the  Doric.  The  distinctive  feature,  as  in 
all  the  orders,  is  the  capital  (Figs.  68,  69),  which  is 
recognised  at  a  glance  by  the  two  remarkable  ornaments 
already  alluded  to  as  like  scrolls,  and  known  as  volutes. 
These  generally  formed  the  faces  of  a  pair  of  cushion- 
shaped  features,  which  could  be  seen  in  a  side  view  of 
the  capital;  but  sometimes  volutes  stand  in  a  diagonal 
position,  and  in  almost  every  building  they  differ  slightly. 
The  abacus  is  less  deep  than  in  the  Greek  Doric,  and 
it  is  always  moulded  at  the  edge,  which  was  never  the 
case  with  the  Doric  abacus.  The  entablature  (Fig.  70) 
is,  generally  speaking,  richer  than  that  of  the  Doric  order. 
The  architrave,  for  example,  has  three  facias  instead  of 
being  plain.  On  the  other  hand,  the  frieze  has  no  triglyphs, 
and  but  rarely  sculpture.  There  are  more  members  in 
the  cornice,  several  mouldings  being  combined  to  fortify 
the  supporting  portion.  These  have  sometimes  been 
termed  "  the  bed  mouldings,"  and  among  them  occurs  one 
which  is  almost  typical  of  the  order,  and  is  termed  a 
dentil  band.  This  moulding  presents  the  appearance  of 
a  plain  square  band,  of  stone,  in  which  a  series  of  cuts  h^d 
been  made  dividing  it  into  blocks  somewhat  resembling 
teeth,  whence  the  name.  Such  an  ornament  is  more 
naturally  constructed  in  wood  than  in  stone  or  marble,  but 
if  the  real  derivation  of  the  Ionic  order,  as  of  the  Doric, 
be  in  fact  from  timber  structures,  the  dentil  band  is 
apparently  the  only  feature  in  which  that  origin  can  now 
be  traced.  The  crowning  member  of  the  cornice  is  a 
partly  hollow  moulding,  technically  called  a  "  cyma  recta," 
less  vigorous  than  the  convex  ovolo,  of  the  Doric  :  this 
moulding,  and  some  of  the  bed  mouldings,  were  com- 
monly enriched  with  carving.  Altogether  more  slender- 
ness  and  less  vigour,  more  carved  enrichment  and  less 
painted  decoration,  more  reliance  on  architectural  oma- 


(©Mi 


F  iG.  70. — The  Ionic  Obdeb.    From  Puiene,  Asia  Misou. 


wm'r^'^'mmm^mwm'!^w€Mmmmimimwm!im^^i 


Cyma  roan. 
i.mAV      Dentil  lood. 


Bnse. 
Styloba'e. 


Fig.  71.— losic  Okdeb.    Feom  the  EaECiiTHEiuit,  Athexs. 


i 


GREEK   IONIC.  107 

ment  and  less  on  the  work  of  the  sculptor,  appear  to 
distinguish  those  examples  of  Greek  Ionic  which  have 
come  down  to  us,  as  compared  with  Doric  buildings. 

The  most  numerous  examples  of  the  Ionic  order  of 
which  remains  exist  are  found  in  Asia  Minor,  but  the 
most  refined  and  complete  is  the  Erechtheium  at  Athens 


Fig.  72. — Noi£th-we.st  View  ok  the  Erkchtheium,  in  the  Time  of  Pericles. 

(Figs.  72,  73),  a  composite  structure  containing  three 
temples  built  in  juxtaposition,  but  differing  from  one 
another  in  scale,  levels,  dimensions,  and  treatment.  The 
principal  order  from  the  Erechtheium  (Fig,  71)  shows  a 
large  amount  of  enrichment  introduced  with  the  most 
refined  and  severe  taste.  Specially  remarkable  are  the 
ornaments    (borrowed   from   the    Assyrian    honeysuckle) 


108 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


which  encircle  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft  at  the  point 
where  it  passes  into  the  capital,  and  the  splendid  spirals 
of  the  volutes  (Figs.  68,  69).    The  bases  of  the  columns 


Fig.  73. — Plan  of  the  Erechtheium. 


I^ 


Fig.  74. — Ionic  Base  from  the 
Temple  of  thf.  Wingless  Vic- 

TOKT  (NlKlt  APTEEOS). 


Fig.  75. — Ionic  Base  MouLDiNoa 
FKOM  Priene. 


in  the  Erechtheium  example  are  models  of  elegance  and 
beauty.     Those  of  some  of  the  examples  from  Asia  Mino 


GREEK   IONIC.  109 

are  overloaded  with  a  vast  number  of  mouldings,  by  no 
means  always  producing  a  pleasing  effect  (Figs.  74,  75). 
Some  of  them  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  bases  of  the 
columns  at  Persepolis. 

The  most  famous  Greek  building  which  was  erected  in 
the  Ionic  style  was  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 
This  temple  has  been  all  but  totally  destroyed,  and  the 
very  site  of  it  had  been  for  centuries  lost  and  unknown 
till  the  energy  and  sagacity  of  an  English  architect  (Mr. 
Wood)  enabled  him  to  discover  and  dig  out  the  vestiges 
of  the  building.  Fortunately  sufficient  traces  of  the 
foundation  have  remained  to  render  it  possible  to  recover 
the  plan  of  the  temple  completely ;  and  the  discovery  of 
fragments  of  the  order,  together  with  representations  on 
ancient  coins  and  a  description  by  Pliny,  have  rendered 
it  possible  to  make  a  restoration  on  paper  of  the  general 
appearance  of  this  famous  temple,  which  must  be  very 
nearly,  if  not  absolutely,  correct. 

The  walls  of  this  temple  enclosed,  as  usual,  a  cella  (in 
which  was  the  statue  of  the  goddess),  with  apparently 
a  treasury  behind  it :  they  were  entirely  surrounded  by  a 
double  series  of  columns,  with  a  pediment  at  each  end. 
The  exterior  of  the  building,  including  these  columns,  was 
about  twice  the  width  of  the  cella.  The  whole  structure, 
which  was  of  marble,  was  planted  on  a  spacious  platform 
with  steps.  The  account  of  Pliny  refers  to  thirty-six 
columns,  which  he  describes  as  "  columnce  celatce "  (sculp- 
tured columns),  adding  that  one  was  by  Scopas,  a  very 
celebrated  artist.  The  fortunate  discovery  by  Mr.  Wood 
of  a  few  fragments  of  these  columns  shows  that  the  lower 
part  of  the  shaft  immediately  above  the  base  was  enriched 
by  a  group  of  figures — about  life-size — carved  in  the 
boldest  relief  and  encircling  the  column.  One  of  these 
groups  has  been  brought  to  the  British  Museum,  and  its 


110  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

beauty  and  vigour  enable  the  imagination  partly  to  restore 
this  splendid  feature,  which  certainly  was  one  of  the  most 
sumptuous  modes  of  decorating  a  building  by  the  aid  of 
sculpture  which  has  ever  been  attempted ;  and  the  effect 
must  have  been  rich  beyond  description. 

It  is  worth  remark  that  the  Erechtheium,  which  has 
been  already  referred  to,  contains  an  example  of  a  different, 
and  perhaps  a  not  less  remarkable,  mode  of  combining 
sculpture  with  architecture.  In  one  of  its  three  porticoes 
(Fig.  72)  the  columns  are  replaced  by  standing  female 
figures,  known  as  caryatidte,  and  the  entablature  rests  on 
their  heads.  This  device  has  frequently  been  repeated  in 
ancient  and  in  modem  architecture,  but,  except  in  some 
comparatively  obscure  examples,  the  sculptured  columns 
of  Ephesus  do  not  appear  to  have  been  imitated. 

Another  famous  Greek  work  of  art,  the  remains  of 
which  have  been,  like  the  Temple  of  Diana,  disinterred  by 
the  energy  and  skill  of  a  learned  Englishman,  belonged 
to  the  Ionic  order.  To  Mr.  Newton  we  owe  the  recovery 
of  the  site,  and  considerable  fragments  of  the  architectural 
features,  of  the  Mausoleum  of  Halicamassus,  one  of  the 
ancient  wonders  of  the  world.  The  general  outline  of 
this  monument  must  have  resembled  other  Greek  tombs 
which  have  been  preserved,  such,  for  example,  as  the  Lion 
Tomb  at  Cnidus ;  that  is  to  say,  the  plan  was  square : 
there  was  a  basement,  above  this  an  order,  and  above  that 
a  steep  pyramidal  roof  rising  in  steps,  not  carried  to  a 
point,  but  stopping  short  to  form  a  platform,  on  which 
was  placed  a  quadriga  (or  four-horsed  chariot).  This 
building  is  known  to  have  been  richly  sculptured,  and 
many  fragments  of  great  beauty  have  been  recovered. 
Indeed  it  was  probably  its  elaboration,  as  well  as  its 
very  unusual  height  (for  the  Greek  buildings  were  seldom 
lofty),  which  led  to  its  being  so  celebrated. 


Fig.  76. — The  Coeintuian  Okdkk.    Fuom  the  Mon-umkkt  of  Lvmcuatus  at  ATiirxs 


112 


CLASSIC  AECHITECTURE. 


The  Corintliian  order,  the  last  to  make  its  appearance, 
was  almost  as  much  Koman  as  Greek,  and  is  hardly  found 
in  any  of  the  great  temples  of  the  best  period  of  which 
remains  exist  in  Greece,  though  we  hear  of  its  use.  For 
example,  Pausanias  states  that  the  Corinthian  order  was 
employed  in  the  interior  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  Alea  at 
Tegea,  built  by  Scopas,  to  which  a  date  shortly  after  the 
year  394  b.c.  is  assigned.     The  examples  which  we  possess 


^ 


Fig.  11. — CouiMHiAN  Capital  fkom  the  Mosumknt  ok  Lysicuates  at  Athens. 


are  comparatively  small  works,  and  in  them  the  order 
resembles  the  Ionic,  but  with  the  important  exceptions 
that  the  capital  of  the  column  is  quite  different,  that  the 
proportions  are  altogether  a  little  slenderer,  and  that  the 
enrichments  are  somewhat  more  florid. 

The  capital  of  the  Greek  Corinthian  order,  as  seen  in 
the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  at  Athens  (Fig.  78) 
— a  comparatively  miniature  example,  but  the  most  perfect 
we  have — is  a  work  of  art  of  marvellous  beauty  (Fig.  77). 


Fig.  is. — MosuMEsr  to  Ltsicuates  at  Athens,  as  ix  the  Time  of  Pekicles» 

I 


114 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


It  retains  a  feature  resembling  the  Ionic  volute,  but 
reduced  to  a  very  small  size,  set  obliquely  and  appear- 
ing to  spring  from  the  sides  of  a  kind  of  long  bell-shaped 
termination  to  the  column.  This  bell  is  clothed  with 
foliage,  symmetrically  arranged  and  much  of  it  studied, 
but  in  a  conventional  manner,-  from  the  graceful  foliage 
of  the  acanthus ;  between  the  two  small  volutes  appears 
an  Assyrian  honeysuckle,  and  tendrils  of  honeysuckle, 
conventionally  treated,  occupy  part  of  the  upper  portion 
of  the  capital.  The  abacus  is  moulded,  and  is  curved  on 
plan,  and  the  base  of  the  capital  is  marked  by  a  very 
unusual  turning-down  of  the  flutes  of  the  columns.  The 
entire  structure  to  which  this  belonged  is  a  model  of 
elegance,  and  the  large  sculptured  mass  of  leaves  and 
tendrils  with  which  it  is  crowned  is  especially  noteworthy. 


Fig.  79. — Capital  of  Aktje  feom  Miletus.    Side  View. 


A  somewhat  simpler  Corinthian  capital,  and  another  of 
very  rich  design,  are  found  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Didy- 
majus  at  Miletus,  where  also  a  very  elegant  capital  for  the 
antae — or  pilasters — is  employed  (Figs.  79,  81).  A  more 
ornamental  design  for  a  capital  could  hardly  be  adopted 
than  that  of  the  Lysicrates  example,  but  there  was  room  for 
more  elaboration  in  the  entablature,  and  accordingly  large 


116  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

richly-sculptured  brackets  seem  to  have  been  introduced, 
and  a  profusion  of  ornament  was  employed.  The  examples 
of  this  treatment  which  remain  are,  however,  of  Eoman 
origin  rather  than  Greek. 

The  Greek  cities  must  have  included  structures  of 
great  beauty  and  adapted  to  many  purj)ose8,  of  which  in 
most  cases  few  traces,  if  any,  have  been  preserved.  We 
have  no  remains  of  a  Greek  palace,  or  of  Greek  dwelling- 
houses,  although  those  at  Pompeii  were  probably  erected 
and  decorated  by  Greek  artificers,  for  Eoman  occupation. 
The  agora  of  a  Greek  city,  which  was  a  place  of  public 
assembly  something  like  the  Eoman  Forum,  is  known  to 
us  only  by  descriptions  in  ancient  writers,  but  we  possess 
some  remains  of  Greek  theatres  ;  and  from  these,  aided  by 
Eoman  examples  and  written  descriptions,  can  understand 
what  these  buildings  were.  The  auditory  was  curved 
in  plan,  occupying  rather  more  than  a  semicircle ;  the 
seats  rose  in  tiers  one  behind  another;  a  circular  space 
was  reserved  for  the  chorus  in  the  centre  of  the  seats, 
and  behind  it  was  a  raised  stage,  bounded  by  a  wall 
forming  its-  back  and  sides :  a  rough  notion  of  the  arrange- 
ment can  be  obtained  from  the  lecture  theatre  of  many 
modern  colleges,  and  our  illustration  (Fig.  80)  gives  a 
general  idea  of  what  must  have  been  the  appearance  of 
one  of  these  structures.  Much  of  the  detail  of  these 
buildings  is,  however,  a  matter  of  pure  speculation,  and 
consequently  does  not  enter  into  the  scheme  of  this 
manual. 


Fig.  81. — Capital  of  Ant^  fkom  Miletus. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE. 


Analysis. 

THE  Plan  or  floor-disposition  of  a  Greek  building 
was  always  simple  however  great  its  extent,  was 
well  judged  for  ejSect,  and  capable  of  being  understood 
at  once.  The  grandest  results  were  obtained  by  simple 
means,  and  all  confusion,  uncertainty,  or  complication 
were  scrupulously  avoided.  Eefined  precision,  order,  sym- 
metiy,  and  exactness  mark  the  plan  as  well  as  every  part 
of  the  work. 

The  plan  of  a  Greek  temple  may  be  said  to  present 
many  of  the  same  elements  as  that  of  an  Egyptian  temple, 
but,  so  to  speak,  turned  inside  out.  Columns  arc  relied  on 
by  the  Greek  artist,  as  they  were  by  the  Egyptian  artist, 
as  a  means  of  giving  effect ;  but  they  are  placed  by  him 
outside  the  building  instead  of  within  its  courts  and  halls. 
The  Greek,  starting  with  a  comparatively  small  nucleus 
formed  by  the  cell  and  the  treasury,  encircles  them  by 


118  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

a  magnificent  girdle  of  pillars,  and  so  makes  a  grand 
structure,  the  first  hint  or  suggestion  being  in  all  proba- 
bility to  be  found  in  certain  small  Egyptian  buildings  to 
which  reference  has  already  been  made.  The  disposition 
of  these  columns  and  of  the  great  range  of  steps,  or 
stylobate,  is  the  most  marked  feature  in  Greek  temple 
plans.  Columns  also  existed,  it  is  true,  in  the  interior  of 
the  building,  but  these  were  of  smaller  size,  and  seem  to 
have  been  introduced  to  aid  in  carrying  the  roof  and  the 
clerestory,  if  there  was  one.  They  have  in  several  in- 
stances disappeared,  and  there  is  certainly  no  ground  for 
supposing  that  in  any  Greek  interior  the  grand  but 
oppressive  effect  of  a  hypostyle  hall  was  attempted  to  bo 
reproduced.  That  was  abandoned,  together  with  the 
complication,  seclusion,  and  gloom  of  the  long  series  of 
chambers,  cells,  &c.,  placed  one  behind  another,  just  as. 
the  contrasts  and  surprises  of  the  series  of  courts  and 
halls  following  in  succession  were  abandoned  for  the  one 
simple  but  grand  mass  built  to  be  seen  from  without 
rather  than  from  within.  In  the  greater  number  of  Greek 
buildings  a  degree  of  precision  is  exhibited,  to  which  the 
Egyptians  did  not  attain.  All  right  angles  are  absolutely 
true ;  the  setting-out  (or  spacing)  of  the  different  columns, 
piers,  openings,  &c.,  is  perfectly  exact ;  and,  in  the  Par- 
thenon, the  patient  investigations  of  Mr.  Penrose  and  other 
skilled  observers  have  disclosed  a  degree  of  accuracy  as 
well  as  refinement  which  resembles  the  precision  with 
which  astronomical  instruments  are  adjusted  in  Europe 
at  the  present  day,  rather  than  the  rough-and-ready 
"measurements  of  a  modern  mason  or  bricklayer. 

What  the  plans  of  Greek  palaces  might  have  exhibited^ 
did  any  remains  exist,  is  merely  matter  for  inference 
and  conjecture,  and  it  is  not  proposed  in  this  volume  to 


ANALYSIS — GREEK.  119 

pass  far  beyond  ascertained  and  observed  facts.  There 
can  be,  however,  little  doubt  that  the  palaces  of  the  West 
Asiatic  style  must  have  at  least  contributed  suggestions 
as  to  internal  disposition  of  the  later  and  more  magni- 
ficent Greek  mansions.  The  ordinary  dwelling-houses  of 
citizens,  as  described  by  ancient  writers,  resembled  those 
now  visible  in  the  disinterred  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum,  which  will  be  referred  to  under  Eoman 
Architecture.*  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  plan  of 
these  is  that  they  retain  the  disposition  which  in  the 
temples  was  discarded ;  that  is  to  say,  all  the  doors  and 
windoAvs  looked  into  an  inner  court,  and  the  house  was 
as  far  as  possible  secluded  within  an  encircling  wall. 
The  contrast  between  the  openness  of  the  public  life 
led  by  the  men  in  Greek  cities,  and  the  seclusion  of  the 
women  and  the  families  when  at  homo,  is  remarkably 
illustrated  by  this  difference  between  the  public  and 
private  buildings. 

The  plan  of  the  triple  building  called  the  Erechtheium 
(Fig.  72)  deserves  special  mention,  as  an  example  of  an 
exceptional  arrangement  which  appears  to  set  the  ordinary 
laws  of  symmetry  at  defiance,  and  which  is  calculated  to 
produce  a  result  into  which  the  picturesque  enters  at  least 
as  much  as  the  beautiful.  Though  the  central  temple  is 
symmetrical,  the  two  attached  porticoes  are  not  so,  and 
do  not,  in  position,  dimensions,  or  treatment,  balance  one 
another.  The  result  is  a  charming  group,  and  we  cannot 
doubt  that  other  examples  of  freedom  of  planning  would 
have  been  found,  had  more  remains  of  the  architecture  of 
the  great  cities  of  Greece  come  down  to  our  own  day. 

In  public  buildings  other  than  temples — such  as  the 

*  See  Chap.  IX. 


120  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

theatre,  the  agora,  and  the  basilica — the  Greek  architects 
seem  to  have  had  great  scope  for  their  genius ;  the  plan- 
ning of  the  theatres  shows  skilful  and  thoroughly  com- 
plete provisions  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  case.  A 
circular  disposition  was  here  introduced — not,  it  is  true, 
for  the  first  time,  since  it  is  rendered  probable  by  the  re- 
presentations on  sculptured  slabs  that  some  circular  build- 
ings existed  in  Assyria,  and  circular  buildings  remain  in 
the  archaic  works  at  Mycenae ;  but  it  was  now  elaborated 
with  remarkable  completeness,  beauty,  and  mastery  over 
all  the  difficulties  involved.  Could  we  see  the  great 
theatre  of  Athens  as  it  was  when  perfect,  we  should 
probably  find  that  as  an  interior  it  was  almost  unrivalled, 
alike  for  convenience  and  for  beauty ;  and  for  these  ex- 
cellences it  was  mainly  indebted  to  the  elegance  of  its 
l^lanning.  The  actual  floor  of  many  of  the  Greek  temples 
appears  to  have  been  of  marble  of  different  colours. 

The  Walls. 

The  construction  of  the  walls  of  the  Greek  temples 
rivalled  that  of  the  Egyptians  in  accuracy  and  beauty 
of  workmanship,  and  resembled  them  in  the  use  of  solid 
materials.  The  Greeks  had  within,  reach  quarries  of  \ 
marble,  the  most  beautiful  material  which  nature  hasy 
provided  for  the  use  of  the  builder ;  and  great  fineness  of 
surface  and  high  finish  were  attained.  Some  interesting 
examples  of  hollow  walling  occur  in  the  construction  of 
the  Parthenon.  The  wall  was  not  an  element  of  the 
building  on  which  the  Greek  architect  seemed  to  dwell 
Avith  pleasure ;  much  of  it  is  almost  invariably  over- 
shadowed by  the  lines  of  columns  which  form  the  main 
features  of  the  building. 


ANALYSIS GREEK.  121 

The  pediment  (or  gable)  of  a  temple  is  a  grand  develop- 
ment of  the  walls,  and  perhaps  the  most  striking  of  the 
additions  which  the  Greeks  made  to  the  resources  of  the 
architect.  It  offers  a  fine  field  for  sculpture,  and  adds  real 
and  apparent  height  beyond  anything  that  the  Egyptians 
ever  attempted  since  the  days  of  the  Pyramid-builders; 
and  it  has  remained  in  constant  use  to  the  present  hour. 

We  do  not  hear  of  towers  being  attached  to  buildings, 
and,  although  such  monumental  structures  as  the  Mauso- 
leum of  Halicamassus  approached  the  proportions  of  a 
tower,  height  does  not  seem  to  have  commended  itself  to 
the  mind  of  the  Greek  architect  as  necessary  to  the  build- 
ings which  he  designed.  It  was  reserved  for  Eoman  and 
Christian  art  to  introduce  this  element  of  architectural 
eifect  in  all  its  power.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek, 
like  the  Persian  architect,  emphasised  the  base  of  his 
building  in  a  remarkable  manner,  not  only  by  base  mould- 
ings, but  by  planting  the  whole  structure  on  a  great 
range  of  steps  which  formed  an  essential  part  of  the 
composition. 

Tlic  Boof. 

The  constitiction  of  the  roofs  of  Greek  temples  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  debate.  It  is  almost  certain 
that  they  were  in  some  way  so  made  as  to  admit  light. 
They  Avere  framed  of  timber  and  covered  by  tiles,  often, 
if  not  always,  of  marble.  Although  all  traces  of  the 
timber  framing  have  disappeared,  we  can  at  least  know 
that  the  pitch  was  not  steep,  by  the  slope  of  the  outline 

of  the  pediments,  which  formed,  as  has  already  been  said,  -J ^ 

perhaps  the  chief  glory  of  a  Greek  temple.  The  flat  stone 
roofs  sometimes  used  by  the  Egyptians,  and  necessitating 
the  placing  of  columns  or  other  supports  close  together, 


122  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

seem  to  have  become  disused,  with  the  exception  that 
where  a  temple  was  surrounded  by  a  range  of  columns 
the  space  between  the  main  wall  and  the  columns  was  so 
covered. 

The  vaulted  stone  roofs  of  the  archaic  buildings,  of 
which  the  treasury  of  Atreus  (Figs.  52,  o2a)  was  the 
type,  do  not  seem  to  have  prevailed  in  a  later  period,  or, 
so  far  as  we  know,  to  have  been  succeeded  by  any  similar 
covering  or  vault  of  a  more  scientific  construction. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  Greek  theatres 
were  not  roofed.  The  Romans  shaded  the  spectators  in 
their  theatres  and  amphitheatres  by  means  of  a  velarium 
or  awning,  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  even 
this  expedient  was  in  use  in  Greek  theatres. 

The  Openings. 

The  most  important  characteristic  of  the  openings  in 
Greek  buildings  is  that  they  were  flat-tojiped, — covered 
by  a  lintel  of  stone  or  marble, — and  never  arched.  We 
have  already  *  shown  that  this  circumstance  is  really  of 
the  first  importance  as  determining  the  architectural 
character  of  buildings.  Doors  and  window  openings  were 
often  a  little  narrower  at  the  top  than  the  bottom,  and 
were  marked  by  a  band  of  mouldings,  known  as  the  archi- 
trave, on  the  face  of  the  wall,  and,  so  to  speak,  framing 
in  the  opening.  There  was  often  also  a  small  cornice  over 
each  (Figs.  82,  83).  Openings  were  seldom  advanced 
into  prominence  or  employed  as  features  in  the  exterior 
of  a  building;  in  fact,  the  same  efiects  which  windows 
produce  in  other  styles  were  in  Greek  buildings  created 
by  the  interspaces  between  the  columns, 

*  Chap.  I. 


ANALYSIS — GREEK. 


123 


The  Columns. 

These  features,  together  with  the  superstructure  or 
entablature,  Avhich  they  custoinarily  carried,  were  the 
prominent  parts  of  Greek  architecture,  occupying  as  they 
did  the  entire  height  of  the  buikling.  The  development 
of  the  orders  (which  Ave  have  explained  to  be  really  deco- 
rative systems,  each  of  which  involved  the  use  of  one  sort 
of  column,  though  the  term  is  constantly  understood  as 
meaning  merely  the  column  and  entablature)  is  a  very 
interesting  subject,  and  illustrates  the  acuteness  with 
which  the  Greeks  selected  from  those  models  which  were 
accessible   to   them,    exactly   what   was   suited  to   their 


Fig.  Si. — GuEEK 
Doorway,  show- 
ing COKNICE. 


ti^,'...,^.,...,.,...^ 

Fig.  83. — GuEEK  Doorway,  Frokt  View. 
(From  the  Euechtheium.)J 


purpose,  and  the  skill  with  Avhich  they  altered  and 
refined,  and  almost  redesigned,  everything  which  they 
so  selected. 

During  the  whole  period  when  Greek  art  was  being 
developed,  the  ancient  and  polished  civilisation  of  Egypt 


124  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

constituted  a  most  powerful  and  most  stable  influence, 
always  present, — always,  comparatively  speaking,  within 
reach, — and  always  the  same.  Of  all  the  forms  of  column 
and  capital  existing  in  Egypt,  the  Greeks,  however,  only 
selected  that  straight-sided  fluted  type  of  which  the 
Beni-Hassan  example  is  the  best  known,  but  by  no 
means  the  only  instance.  We  first  meet  with  these  fluted 
columns  at  Corinth,  of  veiy  sturdy  proportions,  and 
having  a  wide,  swelling,  clumsy  moulding  under  the 
abacus  by  way  of  a  capital.  By  degrees  the  proportions 
of  the  shaft  grew  more  slender,  and  the  profile  of  the 
capital  more  elegant  and  less  bold,  till  the  perfected  per- 
fections of  the  Greek  Doric  column  were  attained.  This 
column  is  the  original  to  which  all  columns  with  moulded 
capitals  that  have  been  used  in  architecture,  from  the 
age  of  Pericles  to  our  own,  may  be  directly  or  indirectly 
referred ;  while  the  Egyptian  types  which  the  Greeks  did 
not  select — such,  for  example,  as  the  lotus-columns  at 
Kamak — have  never  been  perpetuated. 

A  different  temper  or  taste,  and  partly  a  diff'erent 
history,  led  to  the  selection  of  the  West  Asiatic  types 
of  column  by  a  section  of  the  Greek  people ;  but  great 
alterations  in  proportion,  in  the  treatment  of  the  caj)ital, 
and  in  the  management  of  the  moulded  base  from  which 
the  columns  sprang,  were  made,  even  in  the  orders  which 
occur  in  the  Ionic  buildings  of  Asia  Minor.  This  was 
carried  further  when  the  Ionic  order  was  made  use  of  in 
Athens  herself,  and  as  a  result  the  Attic  base  and  the 
perfected  Ionic  capital  are  to  be  found  at  their  best  in  the 
Erechtheium  example.  The  Ionic  order  and  the  Coiin- 
thian,  which  soon  followed  it,  are  the  parents, — not,  it  is 
true,  of  all,  but  of  the  greater  part  of  the  columns  with 
foliated  capitals   that  have  been  used  in  all  styles   and 


ANALYSIS — GREEK.  125 

periods  of  architecture  since.  It  will  not  he  forgotten 
that  rude  types  of  both  orders  are  found  represented  on 
Assyrian  bas-reliefs,  but  still  the  Corinthian  capital  and 
order  must  be  considered  as  the  natural  and,  so  to  speak, 
inevitable  development  of  the  Ionic.  From  the  Corinthian 
capital  an  unbroken  series  of  foliated  capitals  can  be  traced 
do\NTi  to  our  own  day ;  almost  the  only  new  ornamented 
type  ever  devised  since  being  that  which  takes  its  origin 
in  the  Eomanesque  block  capital,  kno"\\ni  to  us  in  England 
as  the  early  Xorman  cushion  capital :  tliis  was  certainly 
the  parent  of  a  distinct  series,  though  even  these  owe  not 
a  little  to  Greek  originals. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  Ionic  base.  It  was  derived 
from  a  very  tall  one  in  use  at  Persepolis,  and  we  meet 
with  it  first  in  the  rich  but  clumsy  forms  of  the  bases  in 
the  Asia  Minor  examples.  In  them  we  find  the  height  of 
the  feature  as  used  in  Persia  compressed,  while  great,  and 
to  our  eyes  eccentric,  elaboration  marked  the  mouldings  : 
these  the  refinement  of  Attic  taste  afterwards  simplified, 
till  the  profile  of  the  well-known  Attic  base  was  produced 
—a  base  which  has  had  as  wide  and  lasting  an  influence 
as  either  of  the  original  forms  of  capital. 

The  Corinthian  order,  as  has  been  above  remarked,  is 
the  natural  sequel  of  the  Ionic.  Had  Greek  architecture 
continxied  till  it  fell  into  decadence,  this  order  would 
have  been  the  badge  of  it.  As  it  was,  the  decadence  of 
Greek  art  was  Roman  art,  and  the  Corinthian  order  was  the 
favourite  order  of  the  Eomans  ;  in  fact  all  the  important 
examples  of  it  which  remain  are  Eoman  work. 

If  we  remember  how  invariably  use  was  made  of  one 
or  other  of  the  two  great  types  of  the  Greek  order  in  all 
the  buildings  of  the  best  Greek  time,  with  the  addition 
towards  its  close  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  that  these 


126  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTUKE. 

orders,  a  little  more  subdivided  and  a  good  deal  modified, 
have  formed  the  substratum  of  Eoman  architecture  and  of 
that  in  use  during  the  last  three  centuries ;  and  if  we  also 
bear  in  mind  that  nearly  all  the  columnar  architecture  of 
Early  Christian,  Byzantine,  Saracenic,  and  Gothic  times, 
owes  its  forms  to  the  same  great  source,  we  may  well 
admit  that  the  invention  and  perfecting  of  the  orders  of 
Greek  architecture  has  been — with  one  exception — the 
most  important  event  in  the  architectural  history  of  the 
world.  That  exception  is,  of  course,  tke  introduction  of 
the  Arch. 

The  Ornaments. 

Greek  Ornaments  have  exerted  the  same  wide  influence 
over  the  whole  course  of  Western  art  as  Greek  columns  ; 
and  in  their  origin  they  are  equally  interesting  as  spe- 
cimens of  Greek  skill  in  adapting  existing  types,  and  of 
Greek  invention  where  no  existing  types  would  serve. 

Few  of  the  mouldings  of  Greek  architecture  are  to  be 
traced  to  anterior  styles.  There  is  nothing  like  them 
in  Egyptian  work,  and  little  or  nothing  in  Assyrian ;  and 
though  a  suggestion  of  some  of  them  may  no  doubt  be 
found  in  Persian  examples,  we  must  take  them  as  having 
been  substantially  originated  by  Greek  genius,  which  felt 
that  they  were  wanted,  designed  them,  and  brought  them 
far  towards  absolute  perfection.  They  were  of  the  most 
refined  form,  and  when  enriched  were  carved  with  con- 
summate skill.  They  were  executed,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, in  white  marble, — a  material  having  the  finest 
STirface,  and  capable  of  responding  to  the  most  delicate 
variations  in  contour  by  corresponding  changes  in  shade 
or  light  in  a  manner  and  to  a  degree  which  no  other 
material  can  equal.     In  the  Doric,  mouldings  were  few, 


ANALYSIS — GREEK.  127 

and  almost  always  convex ;  they  became  much  more  nume- 
rous in  the  later  styles,  and  then  included  many  of 
concave  profile.  The  chief  are  the  OVOLO,  vfhich  formed 
the  curved  part  of  the  Doric  capital,  and  the  cro-wTiing 
moulding  of  the  Doric  cornice  ;  the  cyma  ;  the  bird's  beak, 
employed  in  the  capitals  of  the  antai ;  the  fillets  under 
the  Doric  capital;  the  hollows  and  torus  mouldings  of 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  bases. 

The  profiles  of  these  moxildings  were  very  rarely  seg- 
ments of  circles,  but  lines  of  varying  curvature,  capable  of 
l^roducing  the  most  delicate  changes  of  light  and  shade, 
and  contours  of  the  most  subtle  grace.  Many  of  them 
correspond  to  conic  sections,  but  it  seems  probable  that 
the  outlines  were  drawn  by  hand,  and  not  obtained  by 
any  mechanical  or  mathematical  method. 

The  mouldings  were  some  of  them  enriched,  to  use  the 
technical  word,  by  having  such  ornaments  cut  into  them 
or  carved  on  them  as,  though  simple  in  form,  lent  them- 
selves well  to  repetition.*  Where  more  room  for  ornament 
existed,  and  especially  in  the  capitals  of  the  Ionic  and 
Corinthian  orders,  ornaments  were  freely  and  most  grace- 
fully carved,  and  very  symmetrically  arranged.  Though 
these  were  veiy  various,  yet  most  of  them  can  be  classed 
under  three  heads.  (1.)  Frets  (Figs.  116  to  120).  These 
were  patterns  made  up  of  squares  or  L-shaped  lines  inter- 
laced and  made  to  seem  intricate,  though  originally  simple. 
Frequently  these  patterns  are  called  Doric  frets,  from 
their  having  been  most  used  in  buildings  of  the  Doric 
order.  (2.)  Honeysuckle  (Figs.  94  and  111  to  114).  This 
ornament,  admirably  conventionalised,  had  been  used 
freely  by  the   Assyrians,  and  the  Greeks   only  adopted 

*  For  a  statement  of  the  general  rule  governing  such  enrichments, 
see  page  133. 


128 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


wliat  they  found  ready  to  their  hand  when  they  began 
to  use  it ;  hut  they  refined  it,  at  the  same  time  losing  no 
whit  of  its  vigour  or  effectiveness,  and  the  honeysuckle 
has  come  to  be  known  as  a  typical  Greek  decorative 
motif.  (3.)  Acanthus  (Figs.  84  and  85),  This  is  a  broad- 
leaved  plant,  the  foliage  and  stems  of  which,  treated  in  a 
conventional  manner,  though  with  but  little  departure 
from  nature,  were  found  admirably  adapted  for  floral 
decorative  work,  and  accordingly  were  made  use  of  in  the 
foliage  of  the  Corinthian  capital,  and  in  such  ornaments 
as,  for  example,  the  great  finial  which  forms  the  summit 
of  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates. 


Fig.  84.— The  Acanthus  Leaf  axd  Stalk. 


The  beauty  of  the  carvdng  was,  however,  eclii">sed  by 
that  highest  of  all  ornaments — sculpture.  In  the  Doric 
temples,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Parthenon,  the  architect 
contented  himself  with  providing  suitable  spaces  for  the 
sculptor  to  occupy ;  and  thus  the  great  pediments,  the 
metopes  (Fig.  86)  or  square  panels,  and  the  frieze  of  the 
Parthenon  were  occupied  by  sculptitre,  in  which  there 
was  no  necessity  for  more  conventionalism  than  the 
amount  of  artificial  arrangement   needed  in  order  fitly 


GREEK. 


129 


to  occupy  spaces  that  were  respectively  triangular,  square, 
or  continuous.  In  the  later  and  more  voluptuous  style 
of  the  Ionic  temples  we  find  sculpture  made  into  an 
architectural  feature,  as  in  the  famous  statues,  known  as 
the  Caryatides,  which  support  the  smallest  portico  of 
the  Erechtheium,  and  in  the  enriched  columns  of  the 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  Sculpture  had  already 
been  so  employed  in  Egypt,  and  was  often  so  used  in  later 
times;  but  the  best  opportunity  for  the  display  of  the 
finest  qualities  of  the 
sculptor's  art  is  such  an 
one  as  the  pediments,  &c., 
of  the  great  Doric  temples 
afforded. 

There  is  little  room  for 
doubting  that  all  the 
Greek  temples  were  richly 
decorated  in  colours,  but 
traces  and  indications  are 
all  that  remain :  these, 
however,  are  sufficient  to 
prove  that  a  very  large 
amount  of  colour  was  em- 
ployed, and  that  probably 
ornaments  (Figs.  105  to  120)  were  painted  upon  many  of 
those  surfaces  which  were  left  plain  by  the  mason, 
especially  on  the  cornices,  and  that  mosaics  (Fig.  87)  and 
coloured  marbles,  and  even  gilding,  were  freely  used. 
There  is  also  ground  for  believing  that  as  the  use  of 
carved  enrichments  increased  with  the  increasing  adop- 
tion of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  stjdes,  less  use  was  made 
of  painted  decorations. 


Fig.  85. — Thk  Acanthus  Leaf. 


130 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


Architectural  Character. 

Observations  which  have  been  made  during  the  course  of 
this  and  the  previous  chapters  will  have  gone  far  to  point 
out  the  characteristics  of  Greek  art.  An  archaic  and 
almost  forbidding  severity,  with  heavy  proportions  and 


Fig.  86. — Metope  prom  the  Parthexox.    Conflict  betweet 
A  Cextaur  akd  onk  of  the  Lapitb^e. 

more  strength  than  grace,  marks  the  earliest  Greek  build- 
ings of  which  we  have  any  fragments  remaining.  Dignity, 
sobriety,  refinement,  and  beauty  are  the  qualities  of  the 
works  of  the  best  period.  The  latest  buildings  were 
more  rich,  more  ornate,  and  more  slender  in  their  pro- 
portions and  to  a  certain  extent  less  severe. 


GREEK. 


131 


Most  carefully  studied  proportions  prevailed,  and  were 
wrought  out  to  a  pitch  of  completeness  and  refinement 
which  is  truly  astounding.     Symmetry  was  the  all  hut 


Fig.  87. — Mosaic  fbom  the  Temple  of  Zecs,  Oltmpia. 


inv£rriable  law  of  composition.  Yet  in  certain  respects — 
as,  for  example,  the  spacing  and  position  of  the  columns — 
a  degree  of  freedom  was  enjoyed  which   Eoman   archi- 

K  2 


Fig.  88.— Section  of  the  Portico  op  the  Ekechtheium. 


VlG.    89. — I'l.AX   UK   THE   POUTICO— LOOKING   UP. 


EX.A.MPLES  OF  GREEK  ORNAMENT 

In  the  Northkun  Poutico  of  the  Euf.chtheium — showing  tuk  Oknamkntatios 

OF  THE  Ceiling. 


GREEK. 


133 


tecture  did  not  possess.  Eepetition  ruled  to  the  almost 
entire  suppression  of  variety.  Disclosure  of  the  arrange- 
ment and  construction  of  the  building  was  almost  com- 
plete, and  hardly  a  trace  of  concealment  can  be  detected. 
Simplicity  reigns  in  the  earliest  examples ;  the  elabo- 
ration of  even  the  most  ornamental  is  very  chaste  and 
graceful ;  and  the  whole  effect  of  Greek  architecture  is 
one  of  harmony,  unity,  and  refined  power. 

A  general  principle  seldom  pointed  out  which  governs 
the  application  of  enrichments  to  mouldings  in  Greek 
architecture  may  be  cited  as  a  good  instance  of  the  subtle 
yet  admirable  concord  which  existed  between  the  different 
features  :  it  is  as  follows.  The  outline  of  each  enrichment  in 
relief  was  ordinarily  described  hy  the  same  line  as  the  profile 
of  the  moulding  to  which  it  was  applied.  The  egg  enrich- 
ment (Fig.  91)  on  the  ovolo,  the  water-leaf  on  the  cyma 
reversa  (Figs.  92  and  97),  the  honeysuckle  on  the  cyma 
recta  (Fig.  94),  and  the  guilloche  (Fig.  100)  on  the  torus, 
are  examples  of  the  application  of  this  rule, — one  which 
obviously  tends  to  produce  harmony. 


Fig.  90.— Capital  of  Akt^  fuom  the  Euechtheicm. 


134 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


Fig.  91. — fc,(io  ANii  Dakt. 


J?'iG.  92. — Leaf  axd  Jjakt. 


Fig.  93. — Honetsucklk. 


Fig.  94. — Hosetsuckle. 


Fig.  95. — Acanthus.  Fig.  96. — Acakthus. 

E,XAMPLES  OF  GREFJC  ORNAMENT  IN  REUEF. 


GREEK  OENAMENT. 


135 


Fig.  97. — Llaf  ami  Ium^ll. 


Fig.  98.— Leaf  and  Tongue. 


Fig.  99. — Gaklani). 


Fig.  100. — Gliixoche. 


Fig.  103.— Tobus  Moulding. 


Fig.  104.— Tobus  Moulding. 


EXAMPLES  OF  GEEEK  OEN AMEST  IN  RELIEF. 


136 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


Wall 


Fig.  105. — Honeysuckle. 


Fig.  106. 


Fig.  107. — HOKETSUCKLK. 


Figs.  106,  108.— Facias  with  Bands  of  Fouage. 


^ssS^'^-^      ___ 


Fig.  110. — Egg  and  Uart. 
EXAMPLES  OF  GREEK  ORNAMENT  IN  COLOUR. 


GREEK   ORNAMENT. 


137 


I'iG.    HI. 


Fiu.  Ii2. 


Fig.  113, 


L^]315jjs1^Tb1^]b1^1^^ 


^1  />    '^if       ■ 


Fig.  114. 


Fig.  115.— Glil- 

LOCHE. 

Figs.  Ill  to  113. — Examples  of  the  Hoketscckle.       n 
I'iG.  114. — Combination  of  the  Fret,  the  Egg  and  Dart,  the  Bead 
AND  Fillet,  and  the  Honeysuckle. 


KiiMl 


Fig.  ila.  Fig.  120. 

Fiqs.  116  to  120. — Examples  of  the  Fret. 
EXAMPLES  OF  GREEK  ORNAMENT  IN  COLOUR. 


Fig.  121. — Elevation  of  an  Etruscan  Temple  (restoeed  from  descriptions  only). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ETRUSCAN   AND   ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

Historical  and  General  Sketch. 

THE  few  grains  of  truth  that  we  are  able  to  sift  from 
the  mass  of  legend  which  has  accumulated  round 
the  eaily  history  of  Rome  seem  to  indicate  that  at  a  very 
early  period — which  the  generally  received  date  of  753  B.C. 
may  be  taken  to  fix  as  nearly  as  is  now  possible— a  small 
band  of  outcasts  and  marauders  settled  themselves  on 
the  Palatine  Hill  and  commenced  to  carry  on  depreda- 
tions against  the  various  cities  of  the  tribes  whose  ter- 
ritories were  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  such  as 
the  Umbrians,  Sabines,  Samnites,  Latins,  and  Etruscans. 
A  walled  city  was  built,  which  from  its  admirable  situ- 
ation succeeded  in  attracting  inhabitants  in  considerable 


ETRUSCAX.  139 

numbers,  and  speedily  began  to  exercise  supremacy  over 
its  neighbours.  The  most  important  of  the  neighbour- 
ing nations  were  the  Etruscans,  who  called  themselves 
Easena,  and  who  must  have  settled  on  the  west  coast  of 
Italy,  between  the  rivers  Amo  and  Tiber,  at  a  very  early 
period.  Their  origin  is,  however,  very  obscure,  some 
authorities  believing,  upon  apparently  good  grounds,  that 
they  came  from  Asia  Minor,  while  others  assert  that  they 
descended  from  the  north  over  the  Khaetian  Alps.  But 
whatever  that  origin  may  have  been,  they  had  at  the  time 
of  the  founding  of  Rome  as  a  city  attained  a  high  degree 
of  civilisation,  and  showed  a  considerable  amount  oi 
architectural  skill;  and  their  arts  exercised  a  very  great 
influence  upon  Eoman  art. 

Considerable  remains  of  the  city  walls  of  several  Etrus- 
can towns  still  exist.  These  show  that  the  masonry  was 
of  what  has  been  termed  a  Cyclopean  character, — that  is 
to  say,  the  separate  stones  were  of  an  enormous  size ;  in 
the  majority  of  examples  these  stones  were  of  a  polygonal 
shape,  though  in  a  few  instances  they  were  rectangular, 
while  in  all  cases  they  were  fitted  together  with  the  most 
consummate  accuracy  of  workmanship,  which,  together 
with  their  great  massiveness,  has  enabled  much  of  this 
masonry  to  endure  to  the  present  day.  Cortona,  Volterra, 
Fiesole,  and  other  towns  exhibit  instances  of  this  walling. 
The  temples,  palaces,  or  dwelling-houses  which  went  to 
make  up  the  cities  so  fortified  have  all  disappeared,  and 
the  only  existing  structural  remains  of  Etruscan  build- 
ings are  tombs.  These  are  found  in  large  numbers,  and 
consist — as  in  the  earlier  instances  which  have  already 
been  described — both  of  rock-cut  and  detached  erections. 
Of  the  former,  the  best  known  group  is  at  Castel  d'Asso, 
where  we  find  not  only  chambers  cut  into  the  rock,  each 


140 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


resembling  an  ordinary  room  with  an  entrance  in  the 
face  of  the  rock,  but  also  monuments  cut  completely 
out  and  standing  clear  all  round ;  and  we  cannot  fail  to 
detect  in  the  forms  into  which  the   rock   has  been  cut, 


Fig.  122. — Sepulchre  at  Corneto. 


especially  those  of  the  roof,  imitations  of  wooden  build- 
ings, heavy  square  piers  being  left  at  intervals  sup- 
porting longitudinal  beams  which  hold  up  the  roof. 
Fig.  122  is  an  illustration  of  the  interior  of  a  chamber 
in  the  rock.  Occasionally  there  were  a  cornice  and  pedi- 
ment over  the  entrance. 


ETRUSCAN.  141 

The  other  class  of  tombs  are  circular  tumuli,  similar 
to  the  Pelasgic  tombs  of  Asia  Minor ;  of  these  large 
numbers  exist,  but  not  sufficiently  uninjured  to  enable 
us  to  restore  them  completely.  They  generally  consisted 
of  a  substructure  of  stone,  upon  which  was  raised  a 
conical  elevation.  In  the  case  of  the  Eegulini  Galeassi 
tomb  there  were  an  inner  and  an  outer  tumulus,  the 
latter  of  which  covered  several  small  tombs,  while  the 
inner  enclosed  one  only,  which  had  fortunately  never 
been  opened  till  it  was  lately  discovered.  This  tomb 
was  vaulted  on  the  horizontal  system — that  is  to  say, 
its  vault  was  not  a  true  arch,  but  was  formed  of  courses 
of  masonry,  each  overhanging  the  one  below,  as  in  the 
Treasury  of  Atreus,  and  it  had  a  curious  recess  in  the 
roof,  in  which  were  found  numerous  interesting  examples 
of  Etruscan  pottery.  I  It  is,  however,  clear  from  the  city 
gates,  sewers,  aqueducts,  &c.,  that  the  Etruscans  were 
acquainted  with  and  extensively  used  the  true  radiating 
arch  composed  of  wedge-shaped  stones  (voussoirs),  and 
that  they  constructed  it  with  great  care  and  scientific 
skill.  The  gate  at  Perugia,  and  the  Cloacae  or  Sewers 
at  Eome,  constructed  during  the  reign  of  the  Tarquins,* 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  are  examples  of 
the  true  arch,  and  this  makes  it  certain  that  it  was  from 
the  Etruscans  that  the  Romans  learned  the  arched  con- 
struction which,  when  combined  with  the  trabeated  or 
lintel  mode  of  construction  which  they  copied  from  the 
Greeks,  formed  the  chief  characteristic  of  Eoman  archi- 
tecture. The  Cloaca  Maxima  (Fig.  123),  which  is  roofed 
over  with  three   concentric  semicircular  rings  of   large 

*  The  story  of  the  Tarquias  probably  points  to  a  period  when  the 
chief  supremacy  at  Rome  was  in  the  hands  of  an  Etruscan  family,  and  is 
interesting  for  this  reason. 


142 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


stones,  still  exists  in  many  places  witli  not  a  stone  dis- 
placed, as  a  proof  of  the  skill  of  these  early  builders. 
There  are  remains  of  an  aqueduct  at  Tusculum  whicn 
are  interesting  from  the  fact  of  the  horizontal  being 
combined  with  the  true  arch  in  its  construction. 

No  Etruscan  temples  remain  now,  but  we  know  from 
Vitruvius  that  they  consisted  of  three  cells  with  one 
or  more  rows  of  columns  in  front,  the  intercolumniation 
or  interval  between  the  columns  being  excessive.     The 


Fig.  123. — Cloaca  Maxiju. 


largest  Etruscan  temple  of  which  any  record  remains 
was  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  at  Rome,  which,  under 
the  Empire,  became  one  of  the  most  splendid  temples  of 
antiquity.  It  was  commenced  by  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
and  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  fact  of  the 
builders,  when  excavating  the  foundations,  coming  upon  a 
freshly  bleeding  head  (caput'),  indicating  that  the  jilace 
would  eventually  become  the  chief  city  of  the  world. 
Another  form  of  Etruscan  temple  is  described  by  Vitru- 


ETRUSCAN.  143 

vius,  consisting  of  one  circular  cell  only,  with  a  porch. 
This  form  was  probably  the  origin  of  the  series  of  circular 
Eoman  buildings  which  includes  such  forms  of  temples  as 
that  at  Tivoli,  and  many  of  the  famous  mausolea,  e.g. 
that  of  Hadrian,  and  the  culmination  of  which  style  is 
seen  in  the  Pantheon.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that 
the  Eomans  never  entirely  gave  up  the  circular  form,  one 
instance  of  its  use  in  Britain  at  a  late  period  of  the  Eoman 
occupation  having  been  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Sil- 
chester  near  Basingstoke ;  and  we  shall  find  that  it  was 
perpetuated  in  Christian  baptisteries,  tombs,  and  occa- 
sionally churches. 

We  know  from  the  traces  of  such  buildings  which  exist, 
that  the  Etruscans  must  have  constructed  theatres  and 
amphitheatres,  and  it  is  recorded  that  the  first  Tarquin 
laid  out  the  Circus  Maximus  and  instituted  the  great 
games  held  there.  At  Sutri  there  are  ruins  of  an  amphi- 
theatre which  is  neaily  a  perfect  circle,  measuring  265  ft. 
in  its  greatest  breadth  and  295  ft.  in  length. 

There  are  no  remains  of  other  buildings  which  would 
enable  us  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  civic  architecture 
of  the  Etruscans  :  they  must,  however,  have  attained  to  a 
considerable  skill  in  sculpture,  as  in  some  of  the  tombs 
figures  ai-e  represented  in  high  relief  which  show  no 
small  power  of  expression.  They,  too,  like  the  Egyp- 
tians, embellished  their  tombs  with  mural  paintings. 
These  are  generally  in  outline,  and  represent  human 
figures  and  animals  in  scenes  of  every-day  life,  with  con- 
ventionalised foliage,  or  mythological  scenes  such  as  the 
passage  of  the  soul  after  death  to  the  judgment-seat  where 
its  actions  in  life  are  to  be  adjudicated  upon.  In  the 
plastic  arts  the  Etruscans  made  great  progress,  many 
of  their  vases  showing  a  delicacy  and  grace  which  have 


144  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

never  been  surpassed,  and  exhibiting  in  their  decorations 
traces  of  both  Greek  and  Egyptian  influence. 

We  now  reach  the  last  of  the  classical  styles  of  anti- 
quity, the  Eoman, — a  style  which,  however,  is  rather  an 
adaptation  or  amalgamation  of  other  styles  than  an  original 
and  independent  creation  or  development.  The  contrast 
is  very  great  between  the  "  lively  Grecian,"  imaginative 
and  idealistic  in  the  highest  degree — who  seemed  to  have 
an  innate  genius  for  art  and  beauty,  and  who  was  always 
eager  to  perpetuate  in  marble  his  ideal  conception  of  the 
"  hero  from  whose  loins  he  sprung,"  or  to  immortalise 
with  some  splendid  work  of  art  the  name  of  his  mother- 
city — and  the  stem,  practical  Eoman,  realistic  in  his  every 
pore,  eager  for  conquest,  and  whose  one  dominant  idea  was 
to  bring  under  his  sway  all  the  nations  who  were  brought 
into  contact  with  him,  and  to  make  his  city — as  had  been 
foretold — the  capital  of  the  whole  world.  With  this  idea 
always  before  him,  it  is  no  wonder  that  such  a  typical 
Eoman  as  M.  Porcius  Cato  should  look  with  disdain  upon 
the  fine  arts  in  all  their  forms,  and  should  regard  a  love 
for  the  beautiful,  whether  in  literature  or  art,  as  synony- 
mous with  effeminacy.  Mummius,  also,  who  destroyed 
Corinth,  is  said  to  have  been  so  little  aware  of  the  value 
of  the  artistic  treasures  which  he  carried  away,  as  to 
stipulate  with  the  carriers  who  undertook  to  transport 
them  to  Eome,  that  if  any  of  the  works  of  art  were  lost 
they  should  be  replaced  by  others  of  equal  value. 

When  the  most  prominent  statesmen  displayed  such 
indifference,  it  is  not  surprising  that  for/nearly  500  years 
no  single  trace  of  any  architectural  builaing  of  any  merit 
at  all  in  Eome  can  now  be  discovered,  and  that  history  is 
silent  as  to  the  existence  of  any  monuments  worthy  of 


EOMAN.  145 

being  mentioned.  Works  of  public  utility  of  a  very  exten- 
sive nature  were  indeed  carried  out  dining  this  period; 
such,  for  example,  as  the  Appian  Way  from  Eome  to 
Capua,  which  was  the  first  paved  road  in  Eome,  and  was 
constructed  by  the  Censor  Appius  Claudius  in  B.C.  309. 
This  was  14  ft.  wide  and  3  ft.  thick,  in  three  layers : 
1st,  of  rough  stones  grouted  together ;  2nd,  of  gravel ;  and 
3rd,  of  squared  stones  of  various  dimensionsy'  The  same 
Censor  also  brought  water  from  Praeneste  to  Eome  by  a 
subteri'anean  channel  11  miles  long.  (  Several  bridges  were 
also  erectedJ  and  Cato  the  Censor  is  said  to  have  built  a 
basilica. 

Until  about  150  B.C.  all  the  buildings  of  Eome  were 
constructed  either  of  brick  or  the  local  stone ;  and  though 
we  hear  nothing  of  architecture  as  a  fine  art,  we 
cannot  hesitate  to  admit  that  during  this  period  the 
Eomans  carried  the  art  of  construction,  and  especially 
that  of  employing  materials  of  small  dimensions  and 
readily  obtainable,  in  buildings  of  great  size,  to  a  remark- 
able pitch  of  perfection.  It  was  not  till  after  the  fall  of 
Carthage  and  the  destruction  of  Corinth,  when  Greece 
became  a  Eoman  province  under  the  name  of  Achaia — 
both  which  events  occiirred  in  the  year  146  B.C. — that 
Eome  became  desirous  of  emulating,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  older  civilisation  which  she  had  destroyed ;  and  about 
this  time  she  became  so  enormously  wealthy  that  vast 
sums  of  money  were  expended,  both  publicly  and  privately, 
in  the  erection  of  monuments,  many  of  which  remain  to 
the  present  daj'',  more  or  less  altered.  |  The  first  marble 
temple  in  Eome  was  built  by  the  Consul  Q.  Metellus 
Macedonicus,  who  died  B.C.  115.  Eoman  architecture  from 
this  period  began  to  show  a  wonderful  diversity  in  the 
objects  to  which  it  was  directed, — a  circumstance  perhaps 

L 


146  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

as  interesting  as  its  great  scientific  and  structural  advance 
upon  all  preceding  styles.  In  the  earlier  styles  temples, 
tombs,  and  palaces  were  the  only  buildings  deemed  worthy 
of  architectural  treatment ;  but  under  the  Eomans  baths, 
theatres,  amphitheatres,  basilicas,  aqueducts,  triumphal 
arches,  &c.,  were  carried  out  just  as  elaborately  as  tho 
temples  of  the  gods. 

It  was  under  the  Emperors  that  the  full  magnincenco 
of  Roman  architectural  display  was  reached.  The  famous 
boast  of  Augustus,  that  he  found  Eome  of  brick  and  left 
her  of  marble,  gives  expression  in  a  few  words  to  what 
was  the  great  feature  of  his  reign.  Succeeding  emperors 
lavished  vast  sums  on  buildings  and  public  works  of  all 
kinds;  and  thus  it  comes  to  pass  that  though  the  most 
destructive  of  all  agencies,  hostile  invasions,  conflagi'ations, 
and  long  periods  of  neglect,  have  each  in  turn  done  their' 
utmost  to  destroy  the  vestiges  of  Imperial  Eome,  there 
still  remain  fragments,  and  in  one  or  two  instances  whole 
monuments,  enough  to  make  Rome,  after  Athens,  the  richest 
store  of  classic  architectural  antiquities  in  the  world. 

But  it  was  not  in  Eome  only  that  great  buildings  were 
erected.  The  whole  known  civilised  world  was  under 
Eoman  dominion,  and  wherever  a  centre  of  government 
or  even  a  flourishing  town  existed  there  sprang  up  the 
residences  of  the  dominant  race,  and  their  places  of 
business,  public  worshij),  and  public  amusement.  Con- 
sequently, we  find  in  pur  own  country,  and  in  France, 
Spain,  Germany,  Italy,  North  Africa,  and  Egypt — in 
short,  in  all  the  countries  whei-e  Eoman  rule  was 
established — examples  of  temples,  amphitheatres,  theatres, 
triumphal  arches,  and  dwelling-houses,  some  of  them  of 
great  interest  and  occasionally  in  admirable  preservation. 


Fig.  121. — "Ikcastada"  in  Saloxica. 

CHAPTEE  IX. 

THE   BUILDINGS   OF   THE   ROMANS. 

THE  temples  in  Eome  were  not,  as  in  Greece  and 
Egypt,  the  structures  upon  which  the  architect 
lavished  all  the  resources  of  his  art  and  his  science.  The 
general  form  of  them  was  copied  from  that  made  use 
of  by  the  Greeks,  but  the  spirit  in  which  the  original 
idea  was  carried  out  was  entirely  different.  In  a  word, 
the  temples  of  Eome  were  by  no  means  worthy  of  her 
size  and  position  as  the  metropolis  of  the  world,  and 
very  few  remains  of  them  exist. 

Ten  columns  are  still  standing  of  the  Temple  of  Anto- 
ninus and  Faustina  (now  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  in 
JMiranda):  it  occupied  the  site  of  a  previous  temple 
and  was  dedicated  by  Antoninus  Pius  to  his  wife  Faus- 
tina. The  Temple  (supposed)  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  in  the 
Ionic  style  (Fig.  125),  still  exists  as  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  Egiziaca :  this  was  tetrastyle,  with  half-columns 
all  round  it,  and  this  was  of  the  kind  called  by  Vitru- 
vius  "  pseudo-peripteral."     A  few  fragmentary  remains  of 

L  2 


Fig.  125.— Ionic  Oudeu  fkoji  tub  Temple  of  Foktlxa  Vikilis,  Rome. 


ROMAN.  149 

other  temples  exist  in  Eome,  but  in  some  of  the  Eoman 
provinces  far  finer  specimens  of  temples  remain,  of 
which  perhaps  the  best  is  the  Maison  Carree  at  Nimes 
(Fig.  126).  Hero  we  find  the  Eoman  plan  of  a  single 
cell  and  a  deep  portico  in  front,  while  the  sides  and 
rear  have  the  columns  attached.  The  intercoliimnia- 
tions  and  the  details  of  the  capitals  and  entablature  are, 
however,  almost  pure  Greek.  The  date  of  this  temple  is 
uncertain,  but  it  is  most  probable  that  it  was  erected 
during  the  reign  of  Hadrian.  The  same  emperor  is 
said  to  have  completed  the  magnificent  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympius  at  Athens,  which  was  354  ft.  long  by  171  ft.  wide. 
It  consisted  of  a  cell  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  double  row 
of  detached  columns ;  in  front  was  one  row  of  columns  in 
antis,  and  three  other  rows  in  front  of  these,  while  there 
were  also  three  rows  in  the  rear :  as  the  columns  were  of 
the  Corinthian  order,  and  nearly  60  ft,  in  height,  it  may 
be  imagined  that  it  was  a  splendid  edifice. 

The  ruins  of  another  magnificent  provincial  Eoman 
temple  exist  at  Baalbek — the  ancient  Heliopolis — in  Syria, 
not  far  from  Damascus.  This  building  Avas  erected  during 
the  time  of  the  Antoniues,  probably  by  Antoninus  Pius 
himself,  and  originally  it  must  have  been  of  very  ex- 
tensive dimensions,  the  portico  alone  being  180  ft.  long 
and  about  37  ft.  deep.  This  gives  access  to  a  small 
hexagonal  court,  on  the  western  side  of  which  a  triple 
gateway  opens  into  the  Great  Court,  which  is  a  vast 
qiiadrangle  about  450  ft.  long  by  400  ft.  broad,  Math 
ranges  of  small  chambers  or  niches  on  three  sides,  some 
of  which  evidently  had  at  one  time  beautifully  groined 
roofs.  At  the  western  end  of  this  court,  on  an  artificial 
elevation,  stand  the  remains  of  what  is  called  the  Great 
Temple.      This   was   originally  290  ft.   long  by   160  ft. 


ROMAN. 


151 


wide,  aud  had  54  columns  supporting  its  roof,  six  only 
of  which  now  remain  erect.  The  height  of  these  columns, 
including  base  and  capital,  is  75  ft.,  and  their  diameter 
is  7  ft.  at  base  and  about  6  ft.  6  in.  at  top ;  they  are 
of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  above  them  rises  an  ela- 
borately moulded  entablature,  14  ft.  in  height.  Each  of 
the  columns  is  composed  of  three  stones  only,  secured  by 
strong  iron  cramps ;  and  indeed  one  of  the  most  striking- 
features  of  this  group  of  buildings  is  the  colossal  size 
of  the  stones  used  in  their  construction.  The  quarries 
from  which  these  stones  were  hewn  are  close  at  hand, 
and  in  them  is  one  stone  surpassing  all  the  others  in 
magnitude,  its  dimensions  being  G8  ft.  by  14  ft.  2  in.  by 
13  ft.  11  in.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  means  can 
have  existed  for  transporting  so  huge  a  mass,  the  weight 
of  which  has  been  calculated  at  1100  tons. 


Fig.  12i.— Grousd-plan  of  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli. 


Other   smaller  temples   exist   in    the  vicinity,   all   of 
^v^ich   are    lavishly   decorated,   but    on    the   whole   the 


w 

j 

;  ! 

j  i 

1 '  1 
1 '   i 

m 

[ 

! 

!   1  i 

i 

FlO.    12S.— COUI.NTKIA.N    OUUEU   FUOM   THK   TeMI'LE  OF   VeSTA   AT   TlVOLJ. 


ROMAN. 


153 


ornamentation    shows    an    exuberance    of    detail   which 
somewhat  offends  a  critical  artistic  taste. 

Circular  temples  Avere  an  elegant  variety,  which  seems 


Fig.  129. — The  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Trvoi-i.    Plan  (lookikg  rr)  axd  Section 

OF   TAUT  OF  THE   PERISTYLE. 


to  have  been  originated  by  the  Eomans,  and  of  Avhich 
two  Avell-known  examples  remain — the  Temples  of  Vesta 
at   Eomo  and   at   Tivoli.      The   columns  of  the  temple 


154  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

at  Tivoli  (Fig,  128)  form  a  well-known  and  pleasing 
variety  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  the  circular  form 
of  the  building  as  shown  on  the  plan  (Fig.  127)  gives 
excellent  opportunities  for  good  decorative  treatment, 
as  may  be  judged  of  by  the  enlarged  diagram  of  part 
of  the  peristyle  (Fig.  129). 

i  '  Basilicas. 

^  Among  the  mbst  remarkable  of  the  public  buildings  of 
Roman  times,  both  in  the  mother-city  and  in  the  provinces, 
were  the  Basilicas  or  Halls  of  Justice,  which  were  also 
used  as  commercial  exchanges.  It  is  also  believed  that 
Basilicas  existed  in  some  Greek  cities,  but  no  clue  to  their 
structural  arrangements  exists,  and  whence  originated  the 
idea  of  the  plan  of  these  buildings  we  are  unable  to  state ; 
their  striking  similarity  to  some  of  the  rock-cut  halls  or 
temples  of  India  has  been  already  pointed  out.  They 
were  generally  (though  not  always)  covered  halls,  oblong 
in  shape,  divided  into  three  or  five  aisles  by  two  or  more 
rows  of  columns,  the  centre  aisle  being  much  wider  than 
those  at  the  sides :  over  the  latter,  galleries  were  frequently 
erected.  At  one  end  was  a  semicircular  recess  or  apse,  the 
floor  of  which  was  raised  considerably  above  the  level  of 
the  rest  of  the  building,  and  here  the  2)residing  magistrate 
sat  to  hear  causes  tried;  Four  *  of  these  buildings  are 
mentioned  by  ancient  writers  as  having  existed  in  repub- 
lican times,  viz.  the  Basilica  Portia,  erected  in  B.C.  184,  by 
Cato  the  Censor ;  the  Basilica  Emilia  et  Fulvia,  erected  in 
B.C.  179  by  the  censors  M.  Fulvius  Nobilior  and  M.  ^milius 
Lepidus,  and  afterwards  enlarged  and  called  the  Basilica 

*  The  passage  in  Varro,  which  is  the  sole  authority  for  the  Basilica 
Opimia,  is  generally  considered  to  be  corrupt. 


ROMAN.  155 

Paulli;  the  Basilica  Sempronia,  erected  in  B.C.  169  by 
Tib.  SemproBius  Gracchus  ;  and  the  Basilica  Julia,  erected 
by  Julius  Caesar,  B.C.  46.  All  these  buildings  had  wooden 
roofs,  and  were  of  no  great  architectural  merit,  and  they 
perished  at  a  remote  date.  Under  the  Empire,  basilicas 
of  much  greater  size  and  magnificence  were  erected ;  and 
remains  of  that  of  Trajan,  otherwise  called  the  Basilica 
Ulpia,  have  been  excavated  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan. 
This  was  about  360  ft.  long  by  180  ft.  wide,  had  four  rows 


s    5iaB«iwHaBaHB3aBBBaa    a    Jg 


aBaBaaaHaaaaaBaBBa  a  i|3 

'^                                                           a  H  Ig 

^                            ^                             3  B  Ja 

^                                                                a  s  aa 

B                                                             a  H  ffla 

BBBBHBBBEEBEBBBIsiElIl  H  ffla 


BBBaaaBaaaBBBBaHBa 


B 


Fig.  130.^juousd-i'lan  of  the  Basilica  Ulpia,  Home. 

of  columns  inside,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  covered 
by  a  semicircular  wooden  roof.  Apollodorus  of  Damascus 
was  the  architect  of  this  building.  Another  basilica  of 
which  remains  exist  is  that  of  Maxentius,  which,  after  his 
overthrow  by  Constantino  in  a.d.  312,  was  known  as  the 
Basilica  Constantiniana.  This  structure  was  of  stone,  and 
had  a  vaulted  roof;  it  was  195  ft.  between  the  walls,  and 
was  divided  into  three  aisles  by  piers  with  enormous 
columns  standing  in  front  of  them. 

One   provincial  basilica,  that   at   Treves,  still  stands; 
and  although  it  must  have  been  considerably  altered,  it 


15G  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

is   by   far   tho   best   existing    example   of  this    kind   of 
building.     The  internal  columns  do  not  exist  hero,  and  it 
is  simply  a  rectangular  hall  about  175  ft.  by  85  ft,,  with 
he  usual  semicircular  apse. 

Tho  chief  interest  attaching  to  these  basilicas  lies  in 
the  fact  that  they  formed  the  first  places  of  Christian 
assembly,  and  that  they  served  as  the  model  upon  which 
tho  first  Christian  churches  were  built.  // 

Theatres  and  AmphitJieatres. 

'  "Although  dramas  and  other  plays  were  performed  in 
liome  as  early  as  240  B.C.,  there  seems  to  have  been  a 
strong  prejudice  against  permanent  buildings  for  their 
representation,  as  it  is  recorded  that  a  decree  was  passed 
in  B.C.  154  forbidding  the  construction  of  such  build- 
ings. Mummius,  the  conqueror  of  Corinth,  obtained  per- 
mission to  erect  a  wooden  theatre  for  the  performance 
of  dramas  as  one  of  the  shows  of  his  triumph,  ^and 
after  this  many  buildings  of  tho  kind  were  erected,  but 
all  of  a  temporary  nature ;  and  it  was  not  till  B.C.  61 
that  the  first  permanent  theatre  was  built  by  Pompey. 
This,  and  the  theatres  of  Balbus  and  Marcellus,  appear 
to  have  been  the  only  permanent  theatres  that  were 
erected  in  Im^perial  Eome ;  and  there  are  no  remains  of 
any  but  the  last  of  these,  and  this  is  much  altered.  So 
that,  were  it  not  for  the  remains  of  theatres  found  at 
Pompeii,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  tell  how  they 
were  arranged ;  but  from  these  we  can  see  that  the  stage 
was  raised  and  separated  from  the  part  appropriated  to 
the  spectators  by  a  semicircular  area,  much  like  that 
which  in  Greek  theatres  was  allotted  to  the  chorus  :  in 
the  Eoman  ones  this  was  assigned  for  the  use  of  the  sena- 


ROMAN. 


15^ 


tors.  The  portion  devoted  to  the  spectators — called  the 
Cavea — was  also  semicircular  on  plan,  and  consisted  of 
tiers  of  steps  rising  one  above  the  other,  and  divided  at 
intervals  by  wide  passages  and  converging  staircases  com- 
municating with  the  porticoes,  which  ran  round  the  whole 
theatre  at  every  story. 

At  Orange,  in  the  South  of  France,  are  the  remains  of 
a  very  fine  theatre,  similar  in  plan  to  that  described.     The 


C3  e    u    □    □   £3 


Fig.  131. — Plan  of  the  Colosseum,  Rome. 


great  wall  which  formed  the  back  of  the  scene  in  this 
building  is  still  standing,  and  is  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent pieces  of  masonry  existing. 

Although  the  Eomans  were  not  particularly  addicted 


158 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


to  dramatic  representations,  yet  they  were  passionately 
fond  of  shows  and  games  of  all  kinds :  hence,  not  only  in 
Eome  itself,  but  in  almost  every  Eoman  settlement,  from 
Silchester  to  Verona,  are  found  traces  of  their  amphi- 
theatres, and  the  mother-city  can  claim  the  possession  of 


Fig.  132.— The  Colosseum.    Section  and  Elevation. 


the  most  stupendous  fabric  of  the  tind  that  was  ever 
erected — the  Colosseum  or  Flavian  Amphitheatre,  which 
was  commenced  by  Vespasian  and  finished  by  his  son 
Titus.     An  amphitheatre  is  really  a  double  theatre  with- 


ROMAN.  159 

out  a  stage,  and  with  the  space  in  the  centre  unoccnpied 
by  seats.  This  space,  which  was  sunk  several  feet  below 
the  first  row  of  seats,  was  called  the  arena,  and  was 
appropriated  to  the  various  exhibitions  which  took  place 
in  the  building.  The  j^lan  was  elliptical  or  oval,  and 
this  shape  seems  to  have  been  universal. 

The  Colosseum,  whose  ruins  still  remain  to  attest  its 
pristine  magnificence — 

"  Arches  on  arches,  as  it  were  that  Rome, 
Collecting  the  chief  trophies  of  her  line, 
Would  build  up  all  her  triumphs  in  one  dome"* — 

was  620  ft.  long  and  513  wide,  and  the  height  was  about 
162  ft.  It  was  situated  in  the  hollow  between  the 
Esquilinc  and  Cailian  hills.  The  ranges  of  seats  were 
admirably  planned  so  as  to  enable  all  the  audience  to 
have  a  view  of  Avhat  was  going  on  in  the  arena,  and 
great  skill  was  shown  both  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
approaches  to  the  different  tiers  and  in  the  structural 
means  for  supporting  the  seats,  and  double  corridors  ran 
completely  round  the  building  on  each  floor,  affording 
ready  means  of  exit.  Variotis  estimates  have  been  made 
of  the  number  of  spectators  that  could  be  accommodated, 
and  these  range  from  50,000  to  100,000,  but  probably 
80,000  was  the  maximiim.  Eecent  excavations  have 
brought  to  light  the  communications  which  existed  be- 
tween the  arena  and  the  dens  where  the  wild  animals 
and  human  slaves  and  prisoners  were  confined,  and  some 
of  the  water  channels  used  when  mimic  sea-fights  were 
exhibited.  The  external  facade  is  composed  of  four  stories, 
separated  by  entablatures  that  nin  completely  round  the 
building  without  a  break.  The  three  lower  stories  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  semicircular  arched  openings,  eighty 

*  Byron. 


160  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

in  niimljer,  separated  by  piers  with  attached  columns 
in  front  of  them,  the  Doric  order  being  used  in  the 
lowest  story,  the  Ionic  in  the  second,  and  the  Corinthian 
in  the  third ;  the  piers  and  columns  are  elevated  on 
stylobates ;  the  entablatures  have  a  comparatively  slight 
projection,  and  there  are  no  projecting  keystones  in  the 
arches.  In  the  lowest  range  these  openings  are  13  ft.  4  in. 
wide,  except  the  four  which  are  at  the  ends  of  the  two 
axes  of  the  ellipse,  and  these  are  14ft.  Gin.  wide.  The' 
diameter  of  the  columns  is  2  ft.  8f  in.  The  topmost 
story,  which  is  considerably  more  lofty  than  either  of  the 
lower  ones,  was  a  nearly  solid  wall  enriched  by  Corin- 
thian pilasters.  In  this  story  occur  two  tiers  of  small 
square  openings  in  the  alternate  spaces  between  the 
pilasters.  These  openings  are  placed  accurately  over  the 
centres  of  the  arches  of  the  lower  stories.  Immediately 
above  the  higher  range  of  square  openings  are  a  series 
of  corbels — three  between  each  pair  of  pilasters — which 
probably  received  the  ends  of  the  poles  carrying  the  huge 
awning  which  protected  the  spectators  from,  the  sun's 
rays.  The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  heavy  cornice,  in 
Avhich,  at  intervals  immediately  over  each  corbel,  are 
worked  square  mortise  holes,  forming  sockets  through 
which  the  poles  of  the  awning  passed/  ,  The  stone  of 
which  the  fa(,'ade  of  the  Colosseum  is  built  is  a  local  stone, 
called  travertine,  the  blocks  of  which  are  secured  by  iron 
cramps  without  cement.  Nearly  all  the  internal  portion 
of  the  building  is  of  brick,  and  the  floors  of  the  corridors, 
&c.,  are  paved  with  flat  bricks  covered  with  hard  stucco. 
These  amphitheatres  were  occasionally  the  scene  of  imi- 
tations of  marine  conflicts,  when  the  arena  was  flooded 
Avith  water  and  mimic  vessels  of  war  engaged  each  other. 
Yery  complete   arrangements   were   made,   by  means   of 


ROMAN.  161 

small  aqueducts,  for  leading  the  water  into  the  arena  and 
for  carrying  it  off,  -^/^^^ 
"~7^part  from  theatrical  representations  and  gladiatorial 
combats,  the  Eomans  had  an  inordinate  passion  for  chariot 
races.  For  these  the  circi  were  constructed,  of  which 
class  of  buildings  the  Circus  Maximus  was  the  largest. 
This,  originally  laid  out  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  was  recon- 
structed /on  a  larger  scale  by  Julius  Caesar,  It  was  cir- 
cular at  one  end  and  rectangular  at  the  other,  at  which 
was  the  entrance.  On  both  sides  of  the  entrance  were 
a  number  of  small  arched  chambers,  called  carceres,  from 
which  the  chariots  started.  The  course  was  divided  down 
the  centre  by  a  low  wall,  called  the  spina,  which  was 
adorned  with  various  sculptures.  The  seats  rose  in  a 
series  of  covered  porticoes  all  round  the  course,  except  at 
the  entrance.  As  the  length  of  the  Circus  Maximus  was 
nearly  700  yards,  and  the  breadth  about  135  yards,  it  is 
possible  that  Dionysius  may  not  have  formed  an  exagge- 
rated notion  of  its  capacity  when  he  says  it  would  accom- 
modate 150,000  spectators. 

In  the  Eoman  provinces  amphitheatres  were  often 
erected;  and  at  Pola  in  Istria,  Yerona  in  Italy,  and 
Nimes  and  Aries  in  France,  fine  examples  remain.  A 
rude  Eoman  amphitheatre,  with  seats  cut  in  the  turf  of  a 
hill-side,  exists  to  this  day  at  the  old  town  of  Dorchester 
in  Dorset,  which  was  anciently  a  Eoman  settlement,   y'j 

Baths  (ThermcB). 

Nothing  can  give  us  a  more  impressive  idea  of  the 
grandeur  and  lavish  display  of  Imperial  Eome  than  the 
remains  of  the  huge  Thermae,  or  bathing  establishments, 
which  still   exist.       Between   the   years   10   a.d.,   when 

M 


162  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

Agrippa  built  the  first  public  baths,  and  324  A.D.,  when 
those  of  Constantine  were  erected,  no  less  than  twelve 
of   these   vast   establishments    were   erected  by  various 
emperors,  and  bequeathed  to  the  people.     Of  the  whole 
number,  the  baths  of  Caracalla  and  of  Diocletian  are  the 
only  ones  which  remain  in  any  state  of  preservation,  and 
these  were  probably  the  most  extensive  and  magnificent  of 
all.    All  these  splendid  buildings  were  really  nothing  more 
than  bribes  to  secure  the  favour  of  the  populace  ;  for  it  seems 
quite  clear  that  the  public  had  practically  free  entrance 
to  them,  the  only  charge  mentioned  by  writers  of  the  time 
being  a  quadrans,  about  a  farthing  of  our  money.     Gibbon 
says,  "  The  meanest  Koman  could  purchase  with  a  small 
copper  coin  the  daily  enjoyment  of  a  scene  of  pomp  and 
luxury  which  might  excite  the  envy  of  the  kings  of  Asia." 
And  this  language  is  not  exaggerated.     Not  only  were 
there    private    bath-rooms,   swimming-baths,   hot   baths, 
vapour-baths,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  appurtenances  of  the 
most  approved  Turkish  baths  of  modern  times,  but  there 
were  also  gymnasia,  halls  for  various  games,  lecture-halls, 
libraries,  and  theatres  in  connection  with  the  baths,  all 
lavishly  ornamented  with  the  finest  paintings  and  sculp- 
ture that  could  be  obtained.     Stone  seems  to  have  been 
but  sparingly  used  in  the  construction  of  these  buildings, 
which  were  almost  entirely  of  brick  faced  with  stucco : 
this  served  as  fhe  ground  for  an  elaborate  series  of  fresco 
paintings. 

The  baths  of  Caracalla,  at  the  foot  of  the  Aventine  hill, 
erected  a.d.  217,  comprised  a  quadrangular  block  of  build- 
ings of  about  1150  ft.  (about  the  fifth  of  a  mile)  each  way. 
The  side  facing  the  street  consisted  of  a  portico  the  whole 
length  of  the  faq-ade,  behind  which  were  numerous  ranges 
of  private  bath-rooms.      The  side  and  rear  blocks  contained 


ROMAN. 


1G3 


numerous  halls  and  porticoes,  the  precise  ohject  of  which 
it  is  now  very  difficult  to  ascertain.     As  Byron  says : 

"  Temples,  hatlis,  or  halls? 
Pronounce  who  can." 

Tliis  belt  of  buildings  surrounded  an  open  courtyard  or 
garden,  in  which  was  placed  the  principal  bathing  esta- 
blishment (Fig.  133),  a  building  730  ft.  by  380  ft.,  which 


Fig.  133. — Plan  of  the  PiUNXirAL  Blilwxg,  Baths  of  Cabacalla,  Rome. 


contained  the  large  piscina,  or  swimming-bath,  various  hot 
baths,  dressing-rooms,  gymnasia,  and  other  halls  for  athletic 
exercif'es.  In  the  centre  of  one  of  the  longer  sides  was 
a  large  semicircular  projection,  roofed  with  a  dome,  whicli 
was  lined  with  brass :  this  rotunda  was  called^  the  solar 

M  2 


164  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

cell.  From  the  ruins  of  these  baths  were  taken  some  of 
the  most  splendid  specimens  of  antique  sculpture,  such  as 
the  Famese  Hercules  and  the  Flora  in  the  Museum  of 
Naples. 

The  baths  of  Diocletian,  erected  just  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fourth  century  a.d.,  were  hardly  inferior  to 
those  of  Cjaracalla,  but  modem  and  ancient  buildings  are 
now  intermingled  to  such  an  extent  that  the  general  plan 
of  the  buildings  cannot  now  be  traced  with  accuracy. 
There  are  said  to  have  been  over  3000  marble  seats  in 
these  baths ;  the  walls  were  covered  with  mosaics,  and  the 
columns  were  of  Egyptian  granite  and  green  Numidian 
marble.  The  Ephebeum,  or  grand  hall,  still  exists  as 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  having  been 
restored  by  Michelangelo.  It  is  nearly  300  ft.  long  by 
90  ft.  wide,  and  is  roofed  by  three  magnificent  cross 
vaults,  supported  on  eight  granite  columns  45  ft.  in  height. 
(Jig- 134.) 

"P  There  is  one  ancient  building  in  Rome  more  impressive 
'  tlian  any  other,  not  only  because  it  is  in  a  better  state  of 
preservation,  but  because  of  the  dignity  with  which  it 
has  been  designed,  the  perfection  with  which  it  has  been 
constructed,  and  the  eifectiveness  of  the  mode  in  which 
its  interior  is  lighted.  We  allude  to  the  Pantheon. 
Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  this  was  a  Hall  attached 
to  the  thermas  of  Agrippa,  or  whether  it  was  a  temple. 
Without  attempting  to  determine  this  point,  we  maj^  at 
any  rate  claim  that  the  interior  of  this  building  admi- 
rably illustrates  the  boldness  and  telling  power  with  which 
the  large  halls  forming  part  of  the  thermas  were  designed  ; 
and,  whether  it  belonged  to  such  a  building  or  not,  it  is 
wonderfully  well  fitted  to  illustrate  this  subject. 

The  Pantheon  is  the  finest  example  of  a  domed  hall 


166 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


which  we  have  left.  The  building,  which  forms  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  ad  Martyres,  has  been  considerably- 
altered  at  various  times  since  its  erection,  and  now  consists 
of  a  rotunda  with  a  rectangular  portico  in  front  of  it.    The 


ItTv^rrrF' 


Fio.  135. — The  Pastueos,  Rome.    Gkousd-plax. 


rotunda  was  most  probably  erected  by  Agrippa,  the  son- 
in-law  of  Augustus,  in  B.C.  27,  and  is  a  most  remarkable 
instance  of  clever  construction  at  so  early  a  date.     The 


ROMAN. 


167 


diameter  of  the  interior  is  145  ft.  6  in.,  and  the  height 
to  the  top  of  the  dome  is  147  ft.  In  addition  to  the  en- 
trance, the  walls  are  broken  up  by  seven  large  niches,  three 
of  which  are  semicircular  on  plan,  and  the  others,  alter- 
nating with  them,  rectangular.     The  walls  are  divided 


Fig.  136. — The  Paxtheon  Rome.    Extekior. 


into  two  stories  by  an  entablature  supported  by  columns 
and  pilasters ;  but  although  this  is  now  cut  through 
by  the  arches  of  the  niches,  it  is  at  least  probable  that 
originally  this  was  not  the  case,  and  that  the  entablature 


168 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


ran  continuously  round  the  walls,  as  shown  in  Fig.  137, 
which  is  a  restoration  of  the  Pantheon  by  Adler.  Above 
the  attic  story  rises  the  huge  hemispherical  dome,  which 
is  pierced  at  its  summit  by  a  circulai:  opening  27  ft.  in 
diameter,  through  which  a  flood  of  light  pours  down  and 


Fig.  137. — The  Pantheon,  Rome.    Interior. 


illuminates  the  whole  of  the  interior.  The  dome  is  en- 
riched by  boldly  recessed  panels,  and  these  were  formerly 
covered  with  bronze  ornaments,  which  have  been  removed 
for  the  sake  of  the  metal.  The  marble  enrichments  of 
the  attic  have  also  disappeared,  and  their  place  has  been 
taken  by  common  and  tawdry  decorations  more  adapted 
to  the  stage  of  a  theatre.  But  notwithstanding  every- 
thing that  has  been  done  to  detract  from  the  imposing 
effect  of  the  building  by  the  alteration  of  its  details,  there 
is  still,  taking  it  as  a  whole,  a  simple  grandeur  in  the 


Fig.  138. — The  Comxthian  Order  from  the  Pantheon,  Rome. 


170  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

design,  a  magnificence  in  the  material  employed,  and  a 
quiet  harmony  in  the  illumination,  that  impart  to  the 
interior  a  character  of  sublimity  which  nothing  can  impair. 
The  rectangular  portico  was  added  at  some  subsequent 
period,  and  consists  of  sixteen  splendid  Corinthian  columns 
(Fig.  138),  eight  in  front  supporting  the  pediment,  and 
the  other  eight  dividing  the  poiiico  into  three  bays,  in 
precisely  the  same  way  as  if  it  formed  the  pronaos  to  the 
three  cells  of  an  Etruscan  temple. 


/, 


Bridges  and  Aqueducts. 


The  earliest  Eoman  bridges  were  of  wood,  and  the 
Pons  Sublicius,  though  often  rebuilt,  continued  to  be  of 
this  material  until  the  time  of  Pliny,  but  it  was  impossible 
for  a  people  who  made  such  use  of  the  arch  to  avoid 
seeing  the  great  advantage  this  form  gave  them  in  the 
construction  of  bridges,  and  several  of  these  formed  of 
stone  spanned  the  Tiber  even  before  the  time  of  the 
Empire.  The  finest  Eoman  bridges,  however,  were  built 
in  the  provinces.  Trajan  constructed  one  over  the  Danube 
which  was  150  ft.  high  and  60  ft.  wide,  and  the  arches 
of  which  were  of  no  less  than  170  ft.  span.  This  splendid 
structure  was  destroyed  by  his  successor,  Hadrian,  who 
was  probably  jealous  of  it.  The  bridge  over  the  Tagus  at 
Alcantara,  which  was  constructed  by  Hadrian,  is  another 
very  fine  example.  There  were  six  arches  here,  of  which 
the  two  centre  ones  had  a  span  of  100  ft. 

The  Eoman  aqueducts  aiford  striking  evidence  of  the 
building  enterprise  and  architectural  skill  of  the  people. 
Pliny  says  of  these  works  :  "  If  any  one  will  carefully  con- 
sider the  quantity  of  water  used  in  the  open  air,  in  private 
baths,  swimming-baths,  houses,  gardens,  &c.,  and  thinks 


ROMAN.  171 

of  the  arches  that  have  been  built,  the  hills  that  have  been 
tunnelled,  and  the  valleys  that  have  been  levelled  for  the 
purjiose  of  conducting  the  water  to  its  destination,  he  must 
confess  that  nothing  has  existed  in  the  world  more  calcu- 
lated to  excite  admiration."  The  same  sentiment  strikes 
an  observer  of  to-day  when  looking  at  the  ruins  of  these 
aqueducts.  At  the  end  of  the  first  century  a.d.  we  read  of 
nine  aqueducts  in  Eome,  and  in  the  time  of  Procopius 
(a.d.  550)  there  were  fourteen  in  use.  Of  these,  the  Aqua 
Claudia  and  the  Anio  Novus  were  the  grandest  and  most 
costly.  These  were  constructed  about  the  year  48  a.d., 
and  entered  the  city  upon  the  same  arches,  though  at 
different  levels,  the  Aqua  Claudia  being  the  lower.  The 
arches  carrying  the  streams  were  over  nine  miles  long, 
and  in  some  cases  109  ft.  high.  They  were  purely  works 
of  utility,  and  had  no  architectural  decorations ;  but  they 
were  most  admirably  adapted  for  their  purpose,  and  were 
so  solidly  constructed,  that  portions,  of  them  are  stiH  in 
use.  Some  of  the  provincial  aqueducts,  such  as  those  bf 
Tarragona  and  Segovia  in  Spain,  were  more  ornamental^ 
and  had  a  double  tier  of  arches.  The  Pont  du  Gard,  .not 
far  from  Kimes,  in  France,  is  a  well-known  and  very 
l^icturesque  structure  of  this  character. 

Commemorative  Monuments. 

These  comprise  triumphal  arches,  columns,  and  tombs. 
The  former  consisted  of  a  rectangular  mass  of  masonry 
having  sculptured  representations  of  the  historical  event 
to  be  commemorated,  enriched  with  attached  columns  on 
pedestals,  supporting  an  entablature  crowned  with  a  high 
attic,  on  which  there  was  generally  an  inscription.  In 
the  centre  was  the  wide  and  lofty  arched  opening.     The 


172 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


Arch  of  Titus,  recording  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  is  one 
of  the  finest  examples.  Later  on  triumphal  arches  were 
on  a  more  extended  scale,  and  comprised  a  small  arch  on 
each  side  of  the  large  one ;  examples  of  which  may  he 


Fig.  139. — The  Arch  of  Coxstantine,  Romk. 


seen  in  the  arches  of  Septimius  Severus  and  of  Constantine 
(Fig.  139).  The  large  arched  gateways  which  are  met 
with  in  various  parts  of  Europe — such  as  the  Porte 
d'Arroux  at  Autun,  and  the  Porta  Nigra  at  Treves — are 


ROMAN.  173 

monuments  very  similar  to  triumphal  arches.  There  remain 
also  smaller  monuments  of  the  same  character,  such  as  the 
so-called  Arch  of  the  Goldsmiths  in  Eome  (Fig.  1). 

Columns  were  erected  in  great  numbers  during  the  time 
of  the  Emperors  as  memorials  of  victory.  Of  these  the 
Column  of  Trajan  and  that  of  Marcus  Aurelius  are  the 
finest.  The  former  was  erected  in  the  centre  of  Trajan's 
Forum,  in  commemoration  of  the  Emperor's  victory  over 
the  Daciaus.  It  is  of  the  Doric  order,  132  ft.  10  in.  high, 
including  the  statue.  The  shaft  is  constructed  of  thirty- 
four  pieces  of  marble  joined  Avith  bronze  cramps.  The 
figures  on  the  pedestal  are  very  finely  carved,  and  the 
entire  shaft  is  encircled  by  a  series  of  elaborate  bas-reliefs 
winding  round  it  in  a  spiral  from  its  base  to  its  cajiital. 
The  beauty  of  the  work  on  this  shaft  may  be  best  ap- 
preciated by  a  visit  to  the  cast  of  it  set  up — in  two 
heights,  unfortunately — at  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 
The  Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  generally  known  as  the 
Antonine  Column,  is  similarly  enriched,  but  is  not  equal 
to  the  Trajan  Column. 

The  survival  of  Etruscan  habits  is  clearly  seen  in  the 
construction  of  Eoman  tombs,  which  existed  in  enormous 
numbers  outside  the  gates  of  the  city.  Merivale  says : 
"  The  sepulchres  of  twenty  generations  lined  the  sides 
of  the  high-roads  for  several  miles  beyond  the  gates, 
and  many  had  considerable  architectural  pretensions." 
That  of  Cecilia  Metella  is  a  typical  example.  Here  we 
find  a  square  basement  surmounted  by  a  circular  tower- 
like structure,  with  a  frieze  and  cornice.  This  was  erected 
about  B.C.  60,  by  Crassus.  The  mausoleum  of  Augustus 
was  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale,  and  consisted  of  four 
cylindrical  stories,  one  above  the  other,  decreasing  in 
diameter  as  they  ascended,  and  the  topmost  of  all  was 


174  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

crowned  with  a  colossal  statue  of  the  Emperor.  The 
tomb  of  Hadrian,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber — now  known 
as  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo — was  even  more  magnificent. 
This  comprised  a  square  base,  75  ft.  high,  the  side  of 
which  measured  about  340  ft. ;  above  this  was  a  cylin- 
drical building  surmounted  by  a  circular  peristyle  of  thirty- 
four  Corinthian  columns.  On  the  top  was  a  quadriga 
with  a  statue  of  the  Emperor.  These  mausolea  were  oc- 
casionally octagonal  or  polygonal  in  plan,  surmounted  by 
a  dome,  and  cannot  fail  to  remind  us  of  the  Etruscan 
tumuli. 

Another  kind  of  tomb,  of  less  magnificence,  was  the 
columbarium,  which  was  nothing  more  than  a  subter- 
ranean chamber,  the  walls  of  which  had  a  number  of 
small  apertures  in  them  for  receiving  the  cinerary  urns 
containing  the  ashes  of  the  bodies  which  had  been 
cremated.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Empire,  in  rocky 
districts,  the  tombs  were  cut  in  the  rock,  and  the  fa9ade 
was  elaborately  decorated  with  columns  and  other  archi- 
tectural features. 

Domestic  Architecture. 

Of  all  the  palaces  which  the  Roman  emperors  built  for 
themselves,  and  which  we  know  from  historical  records  to 
have  been  of  the  most  magnificent  description,  nothing 
now  remains  in  Eome  itself  that  is  not  too  completely 
ruined  to  enable  any  one  to  restore  its  plan  with  accuracy, 
though  considerable  remains  exist  of  the  Palace  of  the 
Cassars  on  the  Palatine  Hill.  In  fact,  the  palace  of 
Diocletian  at  Spalatro,  in  Dalmatia,  is  the  only  remain- 
ing example  in  the  whole  of  the  Koman  empire  of  the 
dwelling-house  of  an  emperor,  and  even  this  was  not 
built  till  after  Diocletian  had  resigned  the  imperial  dig- 


ROMAN.  175 

nity,  so  that  its  date  is  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury A.D.  This  palace  is  a  rectangle,  measuring  ahout  700  ft. 
one  way  and  590  ft.  the  other,  and  covers  an  area  of  nearly 
10  acres.  It  is  suri'ounded  by  high  walls,  broken  at  in- 
tervals by  square  and  octagonal  towers,  and  contains 
temples,  baths,  and  extensive  galleries,  besides  the  private 
apartments  of  the  Emperor  and  dwellings  for  the  principal 
officers  of  the  household.  The  architect  of  this  building 
broke  away  from  classical  traditions  to  a  great  extent ;  for 
example,  the  columns  stand  on  corbels  instead  of  pedestals, 
the  entablatures  being  much  broken,  and  the  arches  spring 
directly  from  the  capitals  of  the  columns  (Fig.  149). 

The  private  houses  in  Eome  were  of  two  kinds :  the 
insula  and  the  domiis.  The  insula  Avas  a  block  of  buildings 
several  stories  high,  frequently  let  out  to  diflferent  fami- 
lies in  flats.  The  ground-floor  was  generally  given  up  to 
shops,  which  had  no  connection  with  the  upper  parts  of 
the  building  ;  and  one  roof  covered  the  whole.  This  kind 
of  house  was  generally  tenanted  by  the  poorer  class  of 
tradesmen  and  artificers.  The  other  kind  of  house,  the 
domiis,  was  a  detached  mansion.  The  excavations  at 
Pompeii  have  done  much  to  elucidate  a  number  of  points 
in  connection  with  Eoman  dwellings  which  had  been  the 
subject  of  much  discussion  by  scholars,  but  we  must  not 
too  hastily  assume  that  the  Pompeian  houses  are  the  exact 
counterpart  of  those  of  ancient  Eome,  as  Pompeii  was  what 
may  be  called  a  Eomano-Greek  city. 

The  general  arrangements  of  a  Eoman  house  were  as 
follows :  next  the  street  an  open  space  was  frequently 
left,  with  porticoes  on  each  side  of  it  provided  with 
seats :  this  constituted  the  vestibule,  and  was  entirely 
outside    the    house ;  *    the    entrance-door    opened   into  a 

*  This  does  not  occur  in  the  Pompeian  houses. 


176 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


narrow    passage,    called    the   prothyrum,    which    led    to 
the   atrium,*  which  in  the  houses  of  Eepuhlican  Eome 


Fig.  140. — Grouku-plan  of  the  House  of  Pansa,  Pomi-eii. 

was  the  principal  apartment,  though  afterwards  it  served 
as  a  sort  of  waiting-room  for  the  clients  and  retainers 

*  IMaiked  a,  a,  ou  the  pLvns. 


EOMAJf. 


177 


of  the  house ;  it  was  an  open  court,  roofed  in  on  all  the 
four  sides,  but  open  to  the  sky  in  the  centre.  The  simplest 
form  was  called  the  Tuscan  atrium,  where  the  roof  was 
simply  a  lean-to  sloping  towards  the  centre/the  rafters  being 
supported  on  beams,  two  of  which  rested  on  the  walls  of  the 


Fig.  141. — GKOu>-D-rLAX  of  the  House  of  the  Tkagic  Poet,  ToJiPEir. 


atrium,  and  had  two  other  cross-beams  trimmed  into  thei^j 
The  centre  opening  was  called  the  impluvium,  and  imme- 
diately under  it  a  tank,  called  the  compluvium,  was  formed 
in  the  pavement  to  collect  the  rain-water  (Fig.  142). 
AMien  the  atrium  became  larger,  and  the  roof  had  to  be 

N 


178 


CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


supported  by  columns,  it  was  called  a  cavcedium*     At  the 
end  of  this  apartment  were  three  others,  open  in  front,  the 


largest,  in  the  centre,  ca]leitahli7ium,  and  the  two  side  ones 
*  Vitruvius,  however,  seems  to  use  the  terms  atrium  and  cavsedium 
as  quite  synonymous. 


ROMAJT.  179 

fl?cB;*  these  were  miiuinient-rooms,  where  all  the  family 
archives  were  kept,  and  their  position  is  midway  between  the 
semi-public  part  of  the  house,  which  lay  towards  the  front, 
and  the  strictly  domestic  and  private  part,  which  lay  in  the 
rear.  At  the  sides  of  the  atrium  in  the  larger  houses  were 
placed  small  rooms,  which  served  as  sleeping  chambers. 

From  the  end  of  the  atrium  a  passage,  or  sometimes 
two  passages,  called  the  fauces,  running  by  the  ^ide  of 
the  tablinum,  led  to  the  peristylmm,1[  which  was  the 
grand  private  reception-room  ;  this  also  was  a  court 
open  to  the  sky  in  the  centre,  and  among  the  wealthy 
Eomaus  its  roof  was  supported  by  columns  of  the  rarest 
marbles.  Round  the  peristyle  were  grouped  the  various 
private  rooms,  which  varied  according  to  the  size  of  the 
house  and  the  taste  of  the  owner.  There  was  always 
•one  dining-room  (Jtricliniuini),  and  frequently  two  or 
more,  Avhich  were  arranged  with  different  aspects,  for 
use  in  difierent  seasons  of  the  year.  If  several  dining- 
rooms  existed,  they  were  of  varioiis  sizes  and  decorated 
with  various  degrees  of  magnificence ;  j^and  a  stoiy  is  told 
of  one  of  the  most  luxurious  Romans  of  Cicero's  time, 
that  he  had  simply  to  tell  his  slaves  which  room  he  would 
dine  in  for  them  to  know  what  kind  of  banquet  he  wished  to 
\yQ  prepared.  In  the  largest  houses  there  were  saloons  {seci), 
parlours  (exedrce),  picture  galleries  (joinacothecce),  chapels 
(lararia),  and  various  other  apartments.  The  kitchen,  with 
scullery  and  Ijakehouse  attached,  was  generally  placed  in 
one  angle  of  the  peristyle,  rotmd  which  various  sleeping- 
chambers,  according  to  the  size  of  the  house,  were  arranged. 
Most  of  the  rooms  appear  to  have  been  on  the  ground- 
floor,  and   probably  depended  for   their   light   iipon   the 

*  jMarked  respectively  c,  and  /,  /,  on  the  plan  of  tlie  House  of  Pansa. 
t  Marked  h,  h,  on  the  plans. 

N   2 


180 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


doorway  only ;  though  in  some  instances  at  Pompeii  small 
windows  exist  high  xip  in  the  walls. 


Fig.  143.— Wall  Decoration  from  Pompeii. 


In   the   extreme   rear  of  the   larger  houses  there  was 
generally  a  garden  ;  and  in  those  which  were  without  this, 


ROMAN.  181 

the  dead  walls  in  the  rear  were  frequently  painted  so  as  to 
imitate  a  garden.  The  houses  of  the  wealthy  Eonians 
were  decorated  with  the  utmost  magnificence :  marble 
columns,  mosaic  pavements,  and  charming  pieces  of  sculp- 
ture adorned  their  apartments,  and  the  walls  were  in 
all  cases  richly  painted  (Fig.  143),  being  divided  into 
panels,  in  the  centre  of  which  were  represented  sometimes 
human  figures,  sometimes  landscapes,  and  sometimes  pic- 
tures of  historical  events.  All  the  decoration  of  Eoman 
houses  was  internal  only :  the  largest  and  most  sump- 
tuous mansion  had  little  to  distinguish  it,  next  the  street, 
from  a  comparatively  humble  abode ;  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  space  required  for  the  vestibule  and 
entrance  doorway,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  side  of  the 
house  next  the  street  was  most  frequently  appropriated 
to  shops.  All  tliat  we  are  able  to  learn  of  the  architec- 
ture of  Eoman  private  houses,  whether  from  contem- 
porary descriptions  or  from  the  uncovered  remains  of 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,*  points  to  the  fact  that  it, 
oven  in  a  greater  measure  than  the  public  architecture, 
was  in  no  sense  of  indigenous  growth,  but  was  simpl}^ 
ii  copy  of  Greek  arrangement  and  Greek  decoration. 

*  At  the  Crystal  Palace  can  be  seen  an  interesting  reproduction  of  a 
Pompeian  house,  -which  was  designed  by  the  late  Sir  Digby  Wyatt. 
It  gives  a  very  faithful  reproduction  of  tlie  arrangement  and  the  size  of 
an  average  Ponipeian  house ;  and  tliough  every  part  is  rather  more 
fully  covered  with  decoration  than  was  usual  in  the  originals,  tlie 
decorations  of  each  room  faithfully  reproduce  tlie  treatment  of  some 
original  in  Pompeii  or  Herculaneum. 


Fig.  144. — Cabtikg  ritoM  the  Foitisi  of  Neu\  a,  Komk. 


CHAPTER  X. 


EOMAX   AKCHITECTURE. 


Analysis. 

THE  Plan  (or  floor-dispositiaii). — The  plans  of  Eoman 
buildings  are  striking  from  their  variety  and  the 
vast  extent  which  in  some  cases  they  display,  as  well 
as  from  a  certain  freedom,  mastery,  and  facility  of  hand- 
ling which  are  not  seen  in  eatlier  work.  Their  variety  is 
partly  due  to  the  very  various  j^nrposes  which  the  Lnild- 
ings  of  the  Eomans  were  designed  to  serve :  these  com- 
prised all  to  which  Greek  buildings  had  been  appropriated, 
and  many  others,  the  product  of  the  complex  and  luxurious 
civilisation  of  the  Empire.  But  independent  of  this  cir- 
cumstance, the  employment  of  such  various  forms  in 
the  plans  of  buildings  as  the  ellipse,  the  circle,  and  the 
octagon,  and  their  facile  use,  seem  to  denote  a  people 
who  could  build  rapidly,  and  who  looked  carefully  to 
the  general  masses  and  outlines  of  what  they  built, 
however  carelessly  they  handled  the  minute  details. 
The  freedom  with  which  these  new  fonns  were  employed 


ROMAN.  183 

arises  partly  also  from  the  fact  that  the  Eomans  were  in 
possession  of  a  system  of  construction  which  rendered 
them  practically  independent  of  most  of  the  restrictions 
which  had  fettered  the  genius  of  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians, 
and  Greeks.  Their  vaulted  roofs  could  be  suj)ported  by  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  piers  of  great  solidity, 
placed  far  apart ;  and  accordingly  in  the  great  halls  of 
the  Thennse  and  elsewhere  we  find  planning  in  which,  a 
fcAV  stable  points  of  support  being  secured,  the  outline  of 
the  spaces  between  tliem  is  varied  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
architect  in  the  most  picturesque  and  pleasing  manner. 

The  actual  floor  received  a  good  deal  of  attention  from 
the  Eomans.  It  was  generally  covered  with  tesselated 
pavement,  often  with  mosaic,  and  its  treatment  entered 
into  the  scheme  of  the  design  for  most  interiors. 

The  Walls. 

The  construction  of  these  was  essentially  different  from 
that  adopted  by  most  earlier  nations.  The  Romans  rather 
avoided  tlian  cultivated  the  use  of  large  blocks  of  stone ; 
they  invented  methods  by  which  very  small  materials  could 
be  aggregated  together  into  massive  and  solid  walls.  They 
used  mortar  of  great  cementing  power,  so  much  so  that 
many  specimens  of  Roman  walling  exist  in  this  country 
as  well  as  in  Italy  or  France,  where  the  mortar  is  as  hard 
as  the  stones  which  it  unites.  They  also  employed  a  sj^stetn 
of  binding  together  the  small  materials  so  employed  by 
introducing,  at  short  distances  apart,  courses  of  flat  stones 
or  bricks,  called  "  bond  courses,"  and  they  further  fortified 
such  walls  by  bands  of  flat  materials  placed  edgeways 
after  the  manner  popularly  known  as  herring-bone 
work.     The  result  of  these  methods  of  construction  was 


184  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

that  the  Roman  architect  could  build  anywhere,  no  matter 
how  unpromising  the  materials  which  the  locality  afforded ; 
that  he  could  put  the  walls  of  his  building  together  with- 
out its  being  requisite  to  employ  exclusively  the  skilled 
labour  of  the  mason,  and  that  both  time  and  expense  were 
thus  saved.  This  economy  and  speed  were  not  pushed  so 
far  as  to  render  the  work  anything  but  durable ;  they 
had,  however,  a  bad  effect  in  another  direction,  for  these 
rough  rubble  walls  were  habitually  encased  in  some  more 
sightly  material,  in  order  to  make  them  look  as  though 
they  were  something  finer  than  they  really  were ;  and 
accordingly,  the  exterior  was  often  faced  with  a  thin 
skin  of  masonry,  and  not  infrequently  plastered.  The 
interior  was  also  almost  invariably  plastered,  but  to  this 
little  exception  can  be  taken.  This  casing  of  the  exteriors 
was,  however,  the  beginning  of  a  system  of  what  may  be 
called  false  architecture,  and  one  which  led  to  much  that 
was  degrading  to  the  art. 

The  walls  were  in  many  cases,  it  has  been  already  ob- 
served, gathered  into  strong  masses,  such  as  it  is  customary 
to  term  piers,  in  order  to  support  the  vaulted  roofs  at  the 
proper  points.  They  were  often  carried  to  a  much  greater 
height  than  in  Greek  buildings,  and  they  played  altogether 
a  far  moi-e  important  part  in  the  design  of  Eoman  build- 
ings than  they  had  done  in  that  of  the  Greeks. 

The  Boofs. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  the  Eomans,  in  their  posses- 
sion of  a  new  system  of  construction,  enjoyed  a  degree 
«)f  freedom  which  was  unknown  before.  This  system 
was  based  upon  the  use  of  the  arch,  and  arched  roofs  and 
domes,  and  it  enabled  the  Romans  to  produce  interiors 


ROMAX.  185 

unapproaclied  before  for  size  and  splendour,  and  such  as 
have  hardly  been  surpassed  since,  except  by  the  vaulted 
churches  of  the  Middle  Ages, — buildings  which  are  them- 
selves descended  from  Eoman  originals.  The  art  of 
vaulting  was,  in  short,  the  key  to  the  whole  system  of 
Roman  architecture,  just  as  the  Orders  were  to  that  of 
the  Greeks. 

The  well-known  arch  over  the  Cloaca  Maxima  at  Eome 
(Fig.  123,  p.  142)  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the 
most  ancient  and  most  simple  kind  of  vault,  the  one  which 
goes  by  the  significant  name  of  "  barrel  or  waggon-head 
vault."  This  is  simply  a  continuous  arched  vault  spring- 
ing from  the  top  of  two  parallel  walls ;  in  fact,  like  the 
arch  of  a  railway  tunnel.  Such  a  vault  may  be  con- 
structed of  very  great  span,  and  affords  a  means  of 
putting  a  permanent  roof  over  a  floor  the  outline  of  which 
is  a  parallelogi'am ;  but  it  is  heavy  and  uninteresting  in 
appearance.  It  was  soon  found  to  be  possible  to  introduce 
a  cross  vault  running  at  right  angles  to  the  original  one  ; 
and  where  such  an  intersecting  vault  occurs  the  side  walls 
of  the  original  vault  may  be  dispensed  with,  for  so  much 
of  their  length  as  the  newly-added  vault  spans. 

The  next  step  was  to  introduce  a  succession  of  such  cross 
vaults  close  to  one  another,  so  that  large  poi'tions  of  the 
original  main  wall  might  be  dispensed  with.  What  re- 
mained of  the  side  walls  was  now  only  a  series  of  oblong 
masses  or  piers,  suitably  fortified  so  as  to  carry  the  great 
weight  resting  upon  them,  but  leaving  the  architect  free  to 
occupy  the  space  between  them  as  his  fancy  might  dictate, 
<3r  to  leave  it  quite  open.  In  this  way  were  constructed  the 
great  halls  of  the  Thermae ;  and  the  finest  halls  of  modern 
classic  architecture — such,  for  example,  as  the  Madeleine 
at  Paris,  or  St.  George's  Hall  at  Liverpool — are  only  a 


18G  CLASSIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

reproduction  of  the  splendid  structures  -which  such  a 
system  of  vaulting  rendered  possible. 

When  the  floor  of  the  space  to  be  vaulted  was  circular, 
the  result  of  covering  it  with  an  arched  roof  was  the  dome 
— a  familiar  feature  of  Roman  architecture,  and  the 
noblest  of  all  forms  of  roof.  We  possess  in  the  dome  of 
the  Pantheon  a  specimen,  in  fairly  good  j)reservation,  of 
this  kind  of  roof  on  the  grandest  scale. 

We  shall  find  that  in  later  ages  the  dome  and  the  vault 
were  adopted  by  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  schools  of 
Christian  architecture  respectively.  In  Eome  we  have  the 
origin  of  both. 

Tlie  Openings. 

These  were  both  square-headed  and  arched ;  but  the 
arched  ones  occur  far  more  frequently  than  the  others,  and, 
when  occasion  required,  could  be  far  bolder.  The  open- 
ings became  of  much  greater  importance  than  in  earlier 
styles,  and  soon  disputed  with  the  columns  the  dignity  of 
being  the  feature  of  the  building :  this  eventually  led,  as 
will  be  related  under  the  next  head,  to  various  devices  for 
the  fusion  of  the  two. 

The  adoption  of  the  arch  by  the  Eomans  led  to  a 
great  modification  in  classic  architecture ;  for  its  influ- 
ence was  to  be  traced  in  every  part  of  the  structure 
where  an  opening  of  any  sort  had  to  be  spanned.  For- 
merly the  width  of  such  openings  was  very  limited, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  lintels  of  great  length. 
Now  their  width  and  height  were  pure  matters  of  choice, 
and  doorways,  windows,  and  arcades  naturally  became 
very  prominent,  and  were  often  very  spacious. 


ROMAN.  187 


The  Columns. 


These  necessarily  took  an  altered  place  as  soon  as  build- 
ings were  carried  to  such  a  height  that  one  order  could 
not,  as  in  Greek  temples,  occupy  the  whole  space  from 
pavement  to  roof.  The  Greek  orders  were  modified  hy  the 
Eomans  in  order  to  fit  these  altered  circumstances,  but 
columnar  construction  was  by  no  means  disused  when  the 
arch  came  to  play  so  important  a  part  in  building.  The 
Eoman  Doric  order,  and  a  very  simple  variety  of  it 
called  Tuscan,  were  but  rarely  used.  The  chief  altera- 
tion from  the  Greek  Doric,  in  addition  to  a  general 
degradation  of  all  the  mouldings  and  proportions,  was 
the  addition  of  a  base,  which  sometimes  consists  of  a 
square  plinth  and  large  torus,  sometimes  is  a  slightly 
modified  Attic  base ;  the  capital  has  a  small  moulding- 
round  the  toji  of  the  abacTxs,  and  under  the  ovolo  are  two 
or  three  small  fillets  with  a  necking  below ;  the  shaft 
was  from  6  to  7  diameters  in  height,  and  was  not  fluted ; 
the  frieze  was  ornamented  with  triglyphs,  and  the  metopes 
between  these  were  frequently  enriched  with  sculptured 
heads  of  bulls  :  the  metopes  were  exact  squares,  and  the 
triglyphs  at  the  angles  of  buildings  were  placed  pre- 
cisely over  the  centre  of  the  column. 

The  Ionic  order  was  but  slightly  modified  by  the  Eomans, 
the  chief  alteration  being  made  in  the  capital.  Instead 
of  forming  the  angular  volutes  so  that  they  exhibited  a 
flat  surface  on  the  tAvo  opposite  sides  of  the  capital,  the 
Eomans  aj)pear  to  have  desired  to  make  the  latter  uniform 
on  all  the  four  sides ;  they  therefore  made  the  sides  of  the 
abacus  concave  on  plan,  and  arranged  the  volutes  so  that 
they  seemed  to  spring  out  of  the  mouldings  under  the 
abacus  and  faced  anglewise.     The  capital  altogether  seems 


188 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


compressed  and  crowded  up,  and  by  no  means  elegant; 
in  fact,  Loth  this  and  the  Doric  order  were  decidedly  de- 
teriorations from  the  fine  forms  of  Greek  architecture. 

The  Corinthian  order  was  much  more  in  accordance 
with  the  later  Eoman  taste  for  magnificence  and  display, 
and  hence  we  find  its  use  very  general  both  in  Eome  and 
in  other  cities  of  the  Empire.  Its  proportions  did  not 
greatly  differ  from  those  of  the  Greek  Corinthian,  but 
the  mouldings  in  general  were  more  elaborate.  Numerous 
variations  of  the  capital  exist  (Figs.  145,  145a),  but  the 
principal  one  was  an  amalgamation  of  the  large  Ionic 
volutes  in  the  upper  with  the  acanthus  leaves  of  the  lower 


Fig.  145a.— The  Roman  Composite  Capital. 


Fig.  145. — Ro:iiAN   Corinthian   Capital 

AND  Base  fkoji  the  Temple  of  Vesta 

AT  Tivou. 


portion  of  the  capital :  this  is  known  as  the  Composite 
<n-dcr,  and  the  capital  thus  treated  has  a  strength  and  vigour 
which  was  Avanting  to  the  Greek  order  (see  Fig,  145a). 


ROMAN.  180 

The  shafts  of  the  columns  were  more  often  fluted  than 
not,  though  sometimes  the  lower  portion  was  left  plain 
and  the  upper  only  fluted.  The  Attic  base  was  generally 
used,  hut  an  example  has  been  found  of  an  adaptation  of 
the  graceful  Perse j)olitan  base  to  the  Corinthian  column. 
This  was  the  happiest  innovation  that  the  Romans  made ; 
it  seems,  however,  to  have  been  but  an  individual  attempt, 
and,  as  it  was  introduced  very  shortly  before  the  fall  of 
the  Empire,  the  idea  was  not  worked  out. 

The  orders  thus  changed  were  employed  for  the  most 
part  as  mere  decorative  additions  to  the  walls.  In  many 
cases  they  did  not  even  carry  the  eaves  of  the  roof,  as 
they  always  did  in  a  Greek  temple;  and  it  was  not 
uncommon  for  two,  three,  or  more  orders  to  be  used  one 
above  another,  marking  the  different  stories  of  a  lofty 
building. 

The  columns,  or  pilasters  which  took  their  place,  being 
reduced  to  the  humble  function  of  ornaments  added  to  the 
Avail  of  a  building,  it  became  very  usual  to  combine  thenx 
with  arched  openings,  and  to  put  an  arch  in  the  interspace 
between  two  columns,  or,  in  other  words,  to  add  a  column 
to  the  pier  between  two  arches  (Fig.  140).  These  arched 
openings  being  often  wide,  a  good  deal  of  disproportion 
between  the  height  of  the  columns  and  their  distance 
apart  was  liable  to  occur ;  and,  partly  to  correct  this,  the 
column  was  often  mounted  upon  a  pedestal,  to  which  the 
name  of  "  stylobate  "  has  been  given. 

It  Avas  also  sometimes  customary  to  place  aboA-e  the 
order,  or  the  highest  order  Avhere  more  than  one  was 
employed,  Avhat  was  termed  an  attic — a  Ioav  story  orna- 
mented with  piers  or  pilasters.  The  exterior  of  the 
Colosseum  (Fig.  5),  the  triumphal  arches  of  Constantino 
(Fig.  139)  and  Titus,  and  the  fragments  of  the  upper  part 


Fig.  146. — Paut  of  the  Theatrk  of  Maucemis,  Rome.    Showisg  the  combixatiox  of 

COLUMX-S   AKD  AltCHED   OPEKIKGS. 


ROMAK. 


191 


of  the  Forum  of  Xerva  (Fig.  147)  may  bo  consulted  as 
illustrations  of  the  combination  of  an  order  and  an 
arched  opening,  and  of  the  use  of  pedestals  and  attics. 


r 


>ii^/.W-.i:i|tf;lj.-^...(>;r^fli^/ia>^^ 


^ 


Fig.  147. — Fkom  the  Ruixs  of  the  FoRUif  of  Nerva,  Rome.     Showing  the  rsE 
OF  AN  Attic  Stoet.    With  Plan. 


Another  peculiarit}',  of  which  we  give  an  illustration  from 
the  baths  of  Diocletian  (Fig.  148),  Avas  the  surmounting  a 
column  or  pilaster  with  a  square  pillar  of  stone,  moulded 
in  the  same  way  as  an  entablature,  i.e.  with  the  regular 
division  into  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice.     This  was  a 


192 


CLASSIC   AECHITECTURE. 


decided  perversion  of  the 
use  of  the  order ;  it  occurs 
in  examples  of  late  date. 
So  also  do  various  other 
arrangements  for  making 
an  arch  spiing  from  the 
capital  of  a  column;  one 
of  these,  from  the  palace 
-of  Diocletian  at  Spalatro, 
we  are  able  to  illustrate 
(Fig.  149). 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be 
worth  while  to  say  that 
the  Eoman  writers  and 
architects  recognised  five 
orders  :  the  Tuscan,  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  and 
Composite,   the   first   and 


last    in    this    list    being. 


Fig.  148.— Fi:om  the  Bath.sok  Dioct.ETiAN", 
Rome.    Showi>g  a  FUAosiENTAi:r  Estab- 

however,  really  only  vari-      latube  at  :fHE  stak^g  of  i  akt  of  a 


Fio.  149.— FitoM  THE  Palace  of  Dicci.etiax,  Spai-atho.    Showikc  ax  Aech  spkisgikg 
FROM  A  Column. 


ROMAN. 


193 


?       ^J}^AkWjk^J}^jJ^       A.WXX^A^A^A^/V' 


^'  .  ^?x  '.v^^y 


at    m    w. 


J 


J 


V 


J     =^ 


Fig.  150 — Mouldings  and  Ouxaments  from  various  Roman  Buildings. 

0 


194 


CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


atifnis ;  and  that  when  they  placed  the  orders  above  one 
another,  they  invariably  used  those  of  them  which  they 
selected  in  the  succession  in  which  they  have  been  named ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  Tuscan  or  Doric  lowest,  and  so  on  in 
STiccession. 

The  Ornaments. 

The  mouldings  with  which  Eoman  buildings  are  orna- 
mented are  all  derived  from  Greek  originals,  but  are  often 
extremely  rough  and  coarse.     It  is  true  that  in  some  old 


Fig.  151. — Roman  Cauving.    An  Acanthus  Leaf. 


Fig.  152. — TuE  Egg  and  Daut  Enkichment.    Roman. 


i{omniv  work,  especially  in  those  of  the  tombs  which  are 
executed  in  marble,  mouldings  of  considerable  delicacy 
Hud  refinement  of  outline  occur,  but  these  are  exceptional. 
The  profiles  of  the  mouldings  are,  as  a  rule,  segments  of 


ROMAN. 


195 


circles,  instead  of  being  more  subtle  curves,  and  the  result 
is  that  violent  contrasts  of  light  and  shade  are  obtained, 
telling  enough  at  a  distance,  but  devoid  of  interest  if  the 
spectator  come  near. 

Carving  is  executed  exactly  on  the  same  principles  as 
those  which  govern  the  mouldings — that  is  to  say,  with 
much  more  coarseness  than  in  Greek  work ;  not  lacking 


Fig.  153. — Wall  Decoration  of  (so-called)  Akabesque  character  from 

POMPEn. 

in  vigour,  or  in  a  sort  of  ostentatious  opulence  of  orna- 
ment, but  often  sadly  deficient  in  refinement  and  grace. 

Statues,  many  of  them  copies  of  Greek  originals, 
generally  executed  with  a  heavy  hand,  but  sometimes 
clearly  of  Greek  work,  were  employed,  as  well  as  bronzes, 
inlaid  marbles,  mosaics,  and  various  devices  to  ornament 
the  interiors  of  Greco-Roman  buildings;  and  free  use 
was  made  of  ornamental  plaster-work,  both  on  walls 
and  vaults. 

Coloured  decoration  was  much  in  vogue,  and,  to  judge 

0  2 


196  CLASSIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

from  what  has  come  down  to  us,  must  have  been  executed 
with  great  taste  and  much  spirit.  The  walls  of  a  Eoman 
dwelling-house  of  importance  seem  to  have  been  all 
painted,  partly  with  that  light  kind  of  decoration  to 
which  the  somewhat  inappropriate  name  of  arabesque 
has  been  given,  and  partly  with  groups  or  single  figures, 
relieved  by  dark  or  black  backgrounds.  The  remains  of 
the  Palace  of  the  Cajsars  in  Eome,  much  of  it  not  now 
accessible,  and  the  decorations  visible  at  Pompeii,  give  a 
high  idea  of  the  skill  with  which  this  mural  ornamen- 
tation was  executed;  our  illustration  (Fig.  154)  may  be 
taken  as  affording  a  good  example  of  the  combined  decora- 
tions in  relief  and  colour  often  applied  to  vaulted  ceilings. 
It  is,  however,  characteristic  of  the  lower  level  at 
which  Eoman  art  stood  as  compared  with  Greek  that, 
though  statues  abounded,  we  find  no  traces  of  groups 
of  sculpture  designed  to  occupy  the  pediments  of 
temples,  or  of  bas-reliefs  fitted  to  special  localities  in 
the  buildings,  such  as  were  all  but  universal  in  the  best 
Greek  works. 

Architectural  Cliaracter. 

The  nature  of  this  will  have  been  to  a  large  extent 
gathered  from  the  observations  already  made.  Daring, 
energy,  readiness,  structural  skill,  and  a  not  too  fastidious 
taste  were  characteristic  of  the  Eoman  architect  and  his 
works.  We  find  traces  of  vast  spaces  covered,  bold  con- 
struction successfully  and  solidly  carried  out,  convenience 
studied,  and  a  great  deal  of  magnificence  attained  in  those 
buildings  the  remains  of  which  have  come  down  to  us; 
but  we  do  not  discover  refinement  or  elegance,  a  fine 
feeling  for  proportion,  or  a  close  attention  to  details,  to 
a  degree  at  all  approaching  the  extent  to  which  these 
qualities  are  to  be  met  with  in  Greek  buildings.     We 


ROMAN. 


197 


are  thus   sometimes  tempted   to   regret  that.it  was  not 
possible  to  combine  a  higher  degree  of  refinement  with 


Fig.  154.— Decoeation  in  Relief  and  Colour  of  the  Vault  of  a  Tomb 
IN  THE  Via  Latina,  near  Rome. 

the  great  excellence  in  construction  and  contrivance  ex- 
hibited by  Roman  architecture. 


Fig.  155. — Basilica-Chuech  of  San  Misiato,  Florence. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


Basilicas  in  Borne  and  Baly. 


first    three    centuries    the   Christian 
was    discredited    and    persecuted;    and 


DURING    the 
religion 

though  many  interesting  memorials  of  this  time  (some 
of  them  having  an  indirect  bearing  upon  architectural 
(questions)  remain  in  the  Catacombs,  it  is  chiefly  for  their 
paintings  that  the  touching  records  of  the  past  which 
have  been  preserved  to  us,  in  these  secluded  excavations 
should  be  studied.  Early  in  the  fourth  century  Constan- 
tino the  Great  became  Emperor,  and  in  the  course  of  his 
reign  (from  a.d.  312  to  337)  he  recognised  Christianity, 


BASILICAS.  199 

and  made  it  the  religion  of  the  State.  It  then,  of  course, 
became  requisite  to  provide  places  of  public  worship. 
Probably  the  Christians  would  have  been,  in  many  cases, 
reluctant  to  make  use  of  heathen  temples,  and'  few 
temples,  if  any,  were  adapted  to  the  assembling  of  a  large 
congregation.  But  the  large  halls  of  the  baths  and 
the  basilicas  were  free  from  associations  of  an  objec- 
tionable character,  and  well  fitted  for  large  assemblages 
of  worshippers.  These  and  other  such  places  were  ac- 
cordingly, in  the  first  instance,  employed  as  Christian 
churches.  The  basilica,  however,  became  the  model 
which,  at  least  in  Italy,  was  followed,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  others,  when  new  buildings  were  erected  for 
the  purpose  of  Christian  worship ;  and  during  the  fourth 
century,  and  several  succeeding  ones,  the  churches  of 
the  West  were  all  of  the  basilica  type.  What  occurred 
at  Constantinople,  the  seat  of  the  Eastern  Empire  and 
the  centre  of  the  Eastern  Church,  will  be  considered 
presently. 

There  is  probably  no  basilica  actually  standing  which 
was  built  during  the  reign  of  Constantine,  or  near  his 
time ;  but  there  are  several  basilica  churches  in  Eome, 
such  as  that  of  San  Clemente,  which  were  founded  near 
his  time,  and  which,  though  they  have  been  partially  or 
wholly  rebuilt,  exhibit  what  is  believed  to  be  the  ancient 
disposition  without  modification. 

Access  is  obtained  to  San  Clemente  through  a  fore- 
court to  which  the  name  of  the  atrium  is  given.  This 
is  very  much  like  the  atrium  of  a  Eoman  house,  being 
covered  with  a  shed  roof  round  all  four  sides  and  open  in 
the  centre,  and  so  resembling  a  cloister.  The  side  next 
the  church  was  called  the  narthex  or  porch  ;  and  when  an 
atrium  did  not  exist,  a  narthex  at  least  was  usually  pro- 


Fig.  156.— Inteeiok  of  a  Basilica  at  Pompeii. 
Restored,  frcm  descriptions  by  various  authors. 


BASILICAS.  201 

vided.  The  basilica  has  always  a  central  avenue,  or  nave, 
and  sides  or  aisles,  and  was  generally  entered  from  the 
narthex  by  three  doors,  one  to  each  division.  The  nave  of 
San  Clemente  is  lofty,  and  covered  by  a  simple  wooden 
^roof ;  it  is  separated  from  the  sido  aisles  by  arcades,  the 
arches  of  which  spring  from  the  capitals  of  columns ;  and 
high  up  in  its  side  walls  we  find  windows.  The  side 
aisles,  like  the  nave,  have  wooden  roofs.  The  nave  termi- 
nates in  a  semicircular  recess  called  "  the  apse,"  the  floor 
of  which  is  higher  than  that  of  the  general  structure,  and 
is  approached  by  steps.  A  large  arch  divides  this  apse 
from  the  nave.  A  portion  of  the  nave  floor  is  occupied  by 
an  enclosed  space  for  the  choir,  surrounded  by  marble 
screens,  and  having  a  pulpit  on  either  side  of  it.  These 
pulpits  are  termed  "  ambos."  Below  the  Church  of  San 
Clemente  is  a  vaulted  structure  or  crypt  extending  under 
the  greater  part,  but  not  the  whole,  of  the  floor  of  the 
main  building. 

The  description  given  above  would  apply,  with  very 
slight  variations,  to  any  one  of  the  many  ancient  basilica 
churches  in  Rome,  Milan,  Eavenna,  and  the  other  older 
cities  of  Italy;  the  principal  variations  being  that  in 
many  instances,  including  the  very  ancient  basilica  of 
St.  Peter,  now  destroyed,  the  avenues  all  stopped  short  of 
the  end  wall  of  the  basilica,  and  a  wide  and  clear  trans- 
verse space  or  transept  ran  athwart  them  in  front  of  the 
apse.  San  Clemente  indeed  shows  some  faint  traces  of 
such  a  feature.  In  one  or  two  very  large  churches  five 
avenues  occur, — that  is  to  say,  a  nave  and  double  aisles ; 
and  in  Santa  Agnese  (Fig.  156a)  and  at  least  one  other,  we 
find  a  gallery  over  the  side  aisles  opening  into  the  nave, 
or,  as  Mr.  Fergusson  puts  it,  "  the  side  aisles  in  two 
stories."     In  many  instances  we  should  find  no  atrium. 


BASILICAS.  203 

but  in  all  cases  we  meet  with  the  nave  and  aisles,  and  the 
apse  at  the  end  of  the  nave,  with  its  arch  and  its  elevated 
floor;  and  the  entrances  are  always  at  the  end  of  the 
building  farthest  from  the  apse,  with  some  sort  of  porch 
or  portal. 

The  interest  of  these  buildings  lies  not  so  much  in  their 
venerable  antiquity  as  in  the  fact  that  the  arrangements 
of  all  Christian  churches  in  Western  Europe  down  to  the 
Reformation,  and  of  very  many  since,  are  directly  derived 
from  these  originals.^  If  the  reader  will  refer  to  the 
description  of  a  Gothic  cathedral  in  the  companion  volume 
of  this  series,*  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  him  to  trace  the 
correspondence  between  its  plan  and  its  general  structure 
and  those  of  the  primitive  basilica.  The  atrium  no  longer 
forms  the  access  to  a  cathedral,  but  it  still  survives  in  the 
cloister,  though  in  a  changed  position.  The  narthex  or 
porch  is  still  more  or  less  traceable  in  the  great  western 
portals,  and  in  a  kind  of  separation  which  often,  but  not 
always,  exists  between  the  westernmost  bay  of  a  cathedral 
and  the  rest  of  the  structure.  The  division  into  nave  and 
aisles  remains,  and  in  very  large  churches  and  cathedrals 
there  are  double  aisles,  as  there  were  in  the  largest 
basilicas.  The  nave  roof  is  still  higher  than  the  aisles — 
the  arcade,  in  two  stories,  survives  in  the  usual  arcade 
and  triforium ;  the  windows  placed  high  in  the  nave  are 
the  present  clerestory.  The  apsidal  termination  of  the 
central  avenue  is  still  retained  in  almost  all  Continental 
architecture,  though  in  Great  Britain,  from  an  early  date, 
it  was  abandoned  for  a  square  east  end ;  but  square-ended 
or  apsidal,  a  recess  with  a  raised  floor  and  a  consi^icuous 
arch,  marking  it  ofi"  from  the  nave,  always  occupies  this 

*  '  Gothic  and  Eenaissance  Architecture,'  chap.  ii.  p.  6 


204  EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

end  of  the  church;  and  the  under  church,  or  crypt,  is 
commonly,  though  not  always,  met  with.  The  enclosure 
for  the  choit  has,  generally  speaking,  been  moved  farther 
east  than  it  was  in  the  basilica  churches ;  though  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  in  most  Spanish  cathedrals,  we 
have  examples  of  its  occupying  a  position  closely  analogous 
to  that  of  the  corresponding  enclosure  at  the  basilica  of  San 
Clemente.  The  cross  passage  to  which  we  have  referred 
as  having  existed  in  the  old  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  and 
many  others,  is  the  original  of  the  transept  which  in 
later  churches  has  been  made  more  conspicuous  than  it 
was  in  the  basilica  by  being  lengthened  so  as  to  project 
beyond  the  side  walls  of  the  church,  and  by  being  moved 
more  westward.  Lastly,  the  two  ambos,  or  pulpits, 
survive  in  two  senses.  They  are  represented  by  the 
reading  desk  and  the  pulpit,  and  their  situation  and 
purpose  are  continued  in  the  epistle  and  gospel  sides  of 
the  choir. 

The  one  point  in  which  an  essential  difference  occurs  is 
the  position  of  the  altar,  or  communion  table,  and  that  of 
the  Bishop's  chair,  or  throne.  ^^  In  the  classic  basilica  the 
apse  was  the  tribunal,  and  a  raised  seat  with  a  tesselated 
pavement  occupied  the  central  position  in  it,  and  was  the 
justice-seat  of  the  presiding  judge ;  and  in  the  sweep  of 
the  apse,  seats  right  and  left,  at  a  lower  elevation,  were 
provided  for  assessors  or  assistant-judges.  In  front  of  the 
president  was  placed  a  small  altar.  The  whole  of  these 
arrangements  were  copied  in  the  basilica  churches.  The 
seat  of  the  president  became  the  bishop's  throne,  the  seats 
for  assessors  were  appropriated  to  the  clergy,  and  the 
altar  retained  substantially  its  old  position  in  front  of  the 
apse,  generally  with  a  canopy  erected  over  it.  This  dis- 
position continues  in  basilica  churches  to  the  present  day.  / 


BASILICAS. 


205 


At  St.  Peter's  in  Eome,  for  example,  the  Pope  occupies  a 
throne  in  the  middle  of  the  apse,  and  says  mass  with  his 
face  turned  towards  the  congregation  at  the  high  altar, 


Fig.  157. — Sant'  Apollinare,  Ravenxa.    Paut  of  the  Akcade  and  Apse. 

which  stands  in  front  of  his  throne  under  a  vast  haldac- 
chino  or  canopy ;  biit  in  Western  Christendom  generally 
a  change  has  been  made, — the  altar  has  been  placed  in  the 


206  EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

apse  where  the  hishop's  throne  formerly  stood,  and  the 
throne  of  the  bishop  and  stalls  of  his  clergy  have  been 
displaced,  and  are  to  be  found  at  the  sides  of  the  choir  or 
presbytery. 

y  Many  basilica  churches  were  erected  out  of  fragments 
taken  from  older  buildings,  and  present  a  curious  mix- 
ture of  columns,  capitals,  &c. ;  others,  especially  those  at 
Eavenna,  exhibit  more  care,  and  are  noble  specimens  of 
ancient  and  severe  architectural  work.'^  The  illustration 
which  we  give  of  part  of  the  nave,  arcade,  and  apse  of  one 
of  these,  Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe,  shows  the  dignified 
yet  ornate  aspect  of  one  of  the  most  carefully  executed  of 

J  these  buildings  (Fig.  157). 

J  In  some  of  these  churches  the  decorations  are  chiefly 
in  mosaic,  and  are  extremely  striking.*  Our  illustration  of 
the  apse  of  the  great  basilica  of  St.  Paul  without  the  walls 
(Fig.  158)  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  specimen  of  the  general 
arrangement  and  treatment  of  the  crowd  of  sacred  figures 
and  subjects  which  it  is  customary  to  represent  in  these 
situations;  but  it  can  of  course  convey  no  idea  of  the 
brilliant  effect  produced  by  powerful  colouring  executed 
in  mosaic,  the  most  luminous  of  all  methods  of  enrich- 
ment. •/  The  floor  of  most  of  them  was  formed  in  the  style 
of  mosaic  known  as  "  opus  Alexandrinum,"  and  the  large 
sweeping,  curved  bands  of  coloured  material  with  which 
the  main  outlines  of  the  patterns  are  defined,  and  the 
general  harmony  of  colour  among  the  porphyries  and 
other  hard  stones  with  which  these  pavements  were  exe- 
cuted, combine  to  satisfy  the  eye.  A  splendid  specimen  of 
opus  Alexandrinum,  the  finest  north  of  the  Alps,  exists  in 
the  presbytery  of  Westminster  Abbey.  * 

Another   description   of   building   is    customarily  met 
with  in  connection  with   early  Christian  churches, — the 


Fig.  158. — Apse  of  the  Basiuca  of  St.  1'alx  without  the  "Walls,  Ro>rE. 


208  EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

baptistery.  This  is  commonly  a  detached  building,  and 
almost  always  circular  or  polygonal.  In  some  instances 
the  baptistery  adjoins  the  atrium  or  forecourt;  but  it 
soon  became  customary  to  erect  detached  baptisteries  of 
considerable  size.  These  generally  have  a  high  central 
portion  carried  by  a  ring  of  columns,  and  a  low  aisle  run- 
ning round,  the  receptacle  for  water  being  in  the  centre. 
The  origin  of  these  buildings  is  not  so  clear  as  that  of 
the  basilica  churches ;  they  bear  some  resemblance  to  the 
Eoman  circular  temples;  'but  it  is  more  probable  that 
the  form  was  suggested  by  buildings  similar  in  general 
arrangement,  and  forming  part  of  a  Eoman  bath.  The 
octagonal  building  known  as  the  baptistery  of  Constan- 
tino, and  the  circular  building  now  used  as  a  church  and 
dedicated  to  Santa  Costanza  in  Rome,  and  the  celebrated 
baptistery  of  Eavenna,  are  early  examples  of  this  class  of 
structure.  Somewhat  more  recent,  and  very  well  known, 
are  the  great  baptisteries  of  Florence  and  Pisa. 

A  few  ancient  circular  or  polygonal  churches  remain 
which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  built  as  baptisteries. 
One  of  these  is  at  Eome,  the  church  of  San  Stefano 
Eotondo  ;  but  another,  more  remarkable  in  every  way, 
is  at  Eavenna,  the  church  of  San  Vitale.  This  is  an 
octagonal  building,  with  a  large  vestibule  and  a  small 
apsidal  choir.  The  central  portion,  carried  by  eight 
arches  springing  from  as  many  lofty  and  solid  piers,  and 
surmounted  by  a  hemispherical  dome,  rises  high  above 
the  aisle  which  surrounds  it.  Much  elegance  is  produced 
by  the  arrangement  of  smaller  columns  so  as  to  form  a 
kind  of  apsidal  recess  in  each  of  the  interspaces  between 
the  eight  main  piers. 

Another  feature  which  has  become  thoroughly  identified 
with  church  architecture  is  the  bell-tower,  or  campanile. 


BASILICAS.  209 

This  appendage,  there  can  be  no  donht,  originated  with 
the  basilicas  of  Italy.  The  use  of  bells  as  a  call  to  prayer 
is  said  to  have  been  introduced  not  later,  at  any  rate,  than 
the  sixth  century,  and  to  this  era  is  attributed  a  cir- 
cular campanile  belonging  to  Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe  at 
Ravenna,  a  basilica  already  alluded  to.  The  circular  plan 
was,  however,  exceptional;  the  ancient  campaniles  re- 
maining in  Eome  are  all  square ;  they  are  usually  built  of 
brick,  many  stories  in  height,  and  with  a  group  of  arched 
openings  in  each  story,  and  are  generally  surmounted  by 
a  low  conical  roof. 

The  type  of  church  which  we  have  described  influenced 
church  architecture  in  Italy  down  to  the  eleventh  century, 
and  such  buildings  as  the  beautiful  church  (Fig.  155)  of 
San  Miniato,  near  Florence  (a.d.  1013),  and  the  renowned 
group  of  Cathedral,  Baptistery,  Campanile,  and  Campo 
Santo  (a  kind  of  cloistered  cemetery)  at  Pisa,  bear  a  very 
strong  resemblance  in  many  respects  to  these  originals  ; 
though  they  belong  rather  to  the  Romanesque  than  to 
the  Basilican  division  of  early  Christian  architecture. 


Fig.  158a. — FuiEZE  from  the  Mokastery  at  Fulda. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


/ 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE. 

CONSTANTINE  THE  GEEAT,  who  by  establishing 
the  Christian  religion  had  encouraged  the  erection 
of  basilicas  for  Christian  worship  in  Eome  and  Italy, 
effected  a  great  political  change,  and  one  destined  to  exert 
a  marked  influence  upon  Christian  architecture,  when  he 
removed  the  seat  of  empire  from  Eome  to  Byzantium,  and 
called  the  new  capital  Constantinople,*  after  his  own 
name.  Byzantium  had  been  an  ancient  place,  but  was 
almost  in  ruins  when  Constantino,  probably  attracted  by 
the  unrivalled  advantages  of  its  site.f  rebuilt  it,  or  at  least 
re-established  it  as  a  city.  The  solemn  inauguration  of 
Constantinople  as  the  new  capital  took  place  a.d.  330 ;  and 
when,  under  Theodosius,  the  empire  was  divided,  this  city 
became  the  capital  of  the  East. 
J    With  a  new  point  of  departure  among  a  people  largely 


*  I.e.  the  City  of  Constantine. 

t  "  The  edge  of  the  world :  the  knot  which  links  together  East  and 
West :  the  centre  in  which  all  extremes  combine,"  was  the  not  over- 
charged description  given  of  Constantinople  by  one  of  her  own  bishops. 


BYZANTINE.  211 

of  Greek  race,  we  might  expect  that  a  new  development 
of  the  church  from  some  other  type  than  the  basilica 
might  be  likely  to  show  itself.  This,  in  fact,  is  what 
occurred ;  for  while  the  most  ancient  churches  of  Eome 
all  present,  as  we  have  seen,  an  almost  slavish  copy  of 
an  existing  type  of  building,  and  do  not  attempt  the  use 
of  vaulted  roofs,  in  Byzantium  buildings  of  most  original 
design  sprang  up,  founded,  it  is  true,  on  Eoman  originals, 
but  by  no  means  exact  copies  of  them.  In  the  erection 
of  these  churches  the  most  difficult  problems  of  construc- 
tion were  successfully  encountered  and  solved.  What 
may  have  been  the  course  which  architecture  ran  during 
the  two  centuries  between  the  re  founding  of  Byzantium 
and  the  building  of  Santa  Sophia  under  Justinian,  we  can, 
however,  only  infer  from  its  outcome.  It  is  doubtful  if 
any  church  older  than  the  sixth  century  now  remains  in 
Constantinople ;  but  it  is  certain  that,  to  attain  the  power 
of  designing  and  erecting  so  great  a  work  as  Santa  Sophia, 
the  architects  of  Constantinople  must  have  continued  and 
largely  modified  the  Eoman  practice  of  building  vaults  and 
domes.  There  is  every  probability  that  if  some  of  the 
early  churches  in  Byzantium  were  domed  structures  others 
may  have  been  vaulted  basilicas ;  the  more  so  as  the  very 
ancient  churches  in  Syria,  which  owed  their  origin  to 
Byzantiiim  rather  than  to  Eome,  are  most  of  them  of  the 
basilica  type. 

A  church  which  had  been  erected  by  Constantine,  dedi- 
cated to  Santa  Sophia  (holy  wisdom),  was  burnt  early  in 
the  reign  of  Justinian  (a.d.  527  to  565)  ;  and  in  rebuilding 
it  his  architects,  Anthemios  of  Thralles,  and  Isodoros  of 
Miletus,  succeeded  in  erecting  one  of  the  most  famous 
buildings  of  the  world,  and  one  which  is  the  typical  and 
central  embodiment  of  a  distinct  and  very  strongly  marked 

p  2 


BYZANTINE.  213 

well-defined  style.  The  basis  of  this  style  may  be  said  to 
be  the  adoption  of  the  dome,  in  preference  to  the  vault  or 
the  timber  roof,  as  the  covering  of  the  space  enclosed  within 
the  walls ;  with  the  result  that  the  general  disposition  of 
the  plan  is  circular  or  square,  rather  than  oblong,  and 
that  the  structure  recalls  the  Pantheon  more  than  the 
great  Hall  of  the  Thermae  of  Diocletian,  or  the  Basilica  of 
St.  Paul.  In  Santa  Sophia  one  vast  flattish  dome  domi- 
nates the  central  space.  This  dome  is  circular  in  plan, 
and  the  space  over  which  it  is  placed  is  a  square,  the 
sides  of  which  are  occupied  by  four  massive  semicircular 
arches  of  100  ft.  span  each,  springing  from  four  vast 
piers,  one  at  each  of  the  four  comers.  The  four  tri- 
angular spaces  between  the  comers  of  the  square  so 
enclosed  and  the  circle  or  ring  resting  upon  it  are  filled 
by  what  are  termed  "  pendentives  " — features  which  may, 
perhaps,  be  best  described  as  portions  of  a  dome,  each  just 
sufficient  to  fit  into  one  comer  of  tho  square,  and  the 
four  uniting  at  their  upper  margin  to  form  a  ring.  From 
this  ring  springs  the  main  dome.  It  rises  to  a  height  of 
46  ft.,  and  is  107  ft.  in  clear  diameter.  East  and  west  of 
the  main  dome  are  two  half-domes,  each  springing  from 
a  wall  apsidal  (i.e.  semicircular)  in  plan.  Smaller  apses 
again,  domed  over  at  a  lower  level,  are  introduced,  and 
vaulted  aisles  two  stories  in  height  occupy  the  sides  of  the 
space  within  the  outer  walls  till  the  outline  of  the  building 
is  brought  to  very  nearly  an  exact  square.  Externally  this 
church  iaAininteresting  ;*  but  its  interior  is  of  surpassing 
beauty,''and  can  be  better  described  in  the  eloquent  lan- 
guage of  Gilbert  Scott  f  than  in  any  other :  "  Simple  as 

*  For  an  illustration  see  Fig.  187. 

t  '  Lectures  on  Media3val  Architecture.' 


214  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

is  the  primary  ideal,  the  actual  effect  is  one  of  great  intri- 
cacy, and  of  continuous  gradation  of  parts,  from  the 
small  arcades  up  to  the  stupendous  dome,  which  hangs 
with  little  apparent  support  like  a  vast  bubble  over  the 
centre,  or  as  Procopius,  who  witnessed  its  erection,  de- 
scribed it,  '  as  if  suspended  by  a  chain  from  heaven.' 

"  The  dome  is  lighted  by  forty  small  windows,  which 
pierce  it  immediately  above  the  cornice  which  crowns  its 
pendentives,  and  which,  by  subdividing  its  lower  part 
into  narrow  piers,  increases  the  feeling  of  its  being  sup- 
ported by  its  own  buoyancy. 

"  The  interior  thus  generated,  covered  almost  wholly 
by  domes,  or  portions  of  them,  each  rising  in  succession 
higher  and  higher  towards  the  floating  hemisphere  in  the 
centre,  and  so  arranged  that  one  shall  open  out  the  view 
to  others,  and  that  nearly  the  entire  system  of  vaulting 
may  be  viewed  at  a  single  glance,  appears  to  me  to  be  in 
some  respects  the  noblest  which  has  ever  been  designed, 
as  it  was  certainly  the  most  daring  which,  up  to  that  time 
at  least,  if  not  absolutely,  had  ever  been  constructed." 
After  pointing  out  how  the  smaller  arcades  and  apsidal 
projections,  and  the  vistas  obtained  through  the  various 
arched  openings,  introduced  intricate  effects  of  perspective 
and  constant  changes  of  aspect,  Scott  continues :  "  This 
union  of  the  more  palpable  with  the  more  mysterious,  of 
the  vast  unbroken  expanse  with  the  intricately  broken 
perspective,  must,  as  it  appears  to  me,  and  as  I  judge 
from  representations,  produce  an  impression  more  astound- 
ing than  that  of  almost  any  other  building  :  but  when 
we  consider  the  whole  as  clothed  with  the  richest  beauties 
of  surface, — its  piers  encrusted  with  inlaid  marbles  of  every 
hue,  its  arcades  of  marble  gorgeously  carved,  its  domes 
and  vaultings  r^isplendent  with  gold  mosaic  interspersed 


BYZANTINE.  215 

with  solemn  figures,  and  its  wide-spreading  floors  rich 
with  marble  tesselation,  over  which  the  buoyant  dome 
floats  self-supported,  and  seems  to  sail  over  you  as  you 
move, — I  cannot  conceive  of  anj'^thing  more  astonishing, 
more  solemn,  and  more  magnificent." 

The  type  of  church  of  which  this  magnificent  cathedral 
was  the  great  example  has  continued  in  Eastern  Chris- 
tendom to  the  present  day,  and  has  undergone  surprisingly 
little  variation.  A  certain  distinctive  character  in  the 
foliage  (Fig.  163)  employed  in  capitals  and  other  decorative 
carving,  and  mosaics  of  splendid  colour  but  somewhat  gaunt 
and  archaic  design,  though  often  solemn  and  dignified, 
were  typical  of  the  work  of  Justinian's  day,  and  could  long 
afterwards  be  recognised  in  Eastern  Christian  churches.    ^ 

Between  Rome  and  Constantinople,  and  well  situated  for 
receiving  influence  from  both  those  cities,  stood  Ravenna, 
and  here  a  series  of  buildings,  all  more  or  less  Byzantine, 
were  erected.  The  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  church 
of  San  Vitale  (Figs.  160, 161).  This  building  is  octagonal 
in  plan,  and  thus  belongs  to  the  series  of  round  and 
polygonal  churches  and  baptisteries  for  which  the  circular 
buildings  of  the  Romans  furnished  a  model ;  but  in  its 
high  central  dome,  lighted  by  windows  placed  high  up, 
its  many  subsidiary  arcades  and  apses,  the  latter  roofed 
by  half-domes,  and  its  vaulted  aisles  in  two  stories,  it 
recalls  Santa  Sophia  ;  and  its  sculpture,  carving,  and 
mosaic  decorations  are  hardly  less  famous  and  no  less 
characteristic. 

One  magnificent  specimen   of  Byzantine   architecture, 
,  more  within  the  reach  of  ordinary  travellers,  and  con- 
sequently better  known  than  San  Vitale  or  Santa  Sophia,^ 
must  not  be  omitted,  and  can  be  studied  easily  by  means 
of  numberless  photographic   illustrations — St.  Mark's  at 


Fig.  160.— Plan  of  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna. 


Fig.  161.— San  Vitale  at  Ravenna.  Longitudinal  SECnoK. 


BYZANTINE. 


217 


Venice.  This  cathedral  was  built  between  the  years 
977-1071,  and,  it  is  said,  according  to  a  design  obtained 
from  Constantinople.  It  has  since  been  altered  in  ex- 
ternal appearance  by  the  erection  of  bulbous  domical  roofs 
over  its  domes,  and  by  additions  of  florid  Gothic  character ; 
but,  disregarding  these,  we  have  alike  in  plan,  structure, 
and  ornament,  a  Byzantine  church  of  the  first  class. 

The  ground-plan  of  St.  Mark's  (Fig.    162)  presents  a 
Greek  cross,  i.e.  one  in  which  all  the  arms  are  equal,  and 


I'lo.  162. — Plan  of  St.  Mark's  at  Vksick. 


it  is  roofed  by  five  principal  domes,  one  at  the  crossing 
and  one  over  each  of  the  four  limbs  of  the  cross.  Aisles  at 
a  low  level,  and  covered  by  a  series  of  small  flat  domes,  in 
lieu  of  vaulting,  fill  up  the  angles  between  the  arms  of  the 
cross,  so  as  to  make  the  outline  of  the  plan  nearly  square. 


218  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTUUE. 

The  ricli  colouring  of  St.  Mark's,  due  to  a  profuse  employ- 
ment of  mosaics  and  of  the  most  costly  marbles,  and  the 
splendid  effects  produced  by  the  mode  of  introdiicing 
light,  which  is  admitted  much  as  at  Santa  Sophia,  are 
perhaps  its  greatest  charm ;  but  there  is  beauty  in  every 
aspect  of  its  interior  which  has  furnished  a  fit  theme  for 
the  pen  of  the  most  eloquent  writer  on  art  and  architecture 
of  the  present  or  perhaps  of  any  day. 

From  Venice  the  influence  of  Byzantine  art  spread 
to  a  small  extent  in  North  Italy ;  in  that  city  herself  as 
well  as  in  neighbouring  towns,  such  as  Padua,  buildings 
and  fragments  of  buildings  exhibiting  the  characteristics 
of  the  style  can  be  found.  Eemarkable  traces  of  the 
influence  of  Byzantium  as  a  centre,  believed  to  be  due 
to  intercourse  with  Venice,  can  also  be  found  in  France. 
Direct  communication  with  Constantinople  by  way  of  the 
Mediterranean  has  also  introduced  Byzantine  taste  into 
Sicily. '^One  famous  French  church,  St.  Front  in  Perigueux, 
is  identical  (or  nearly  so)  with  St.  Mark's  in  its  plan ;  but 
all  its  constructive  arches  being  pointed  (Fig.  3,  page  5), 
its  general  appearance  differs  a  good  deal  from  that  of 
Eastern  churches — a  difference  which  is  accentuated  by 
the  absence  of  the  mosaics  and  other  coloured  ornaments 
which  enrich  the  walls  of  St.  Mark's.  Many  very  old 
domed  churches  and  much  sculpture  of  the  Byzantine 
type  are  moreover  to  be  found  in  Central  and  Southern 
France — Anjou,  Aquitaine,  and  Auvergne.  These  are, 
however,  isolated  examples  of  the  style  having  taken  root 
in  spite  of  adverse  circumstances ;  /it  is  in  those  parts  of 
Europe  where  the  Greek  Church  prevails,  or  did  prevail, 
that  Byzantine  architecture  chiefly  flourishes.  In  Greece 
and  Asia  Minor  many  ancient  churches  of  Byzantine 
structure  remain,  while  in  Russia  churches  are  built  to  the 


BYZANTINE.  219 

present  day  corresponding  to  the  general  type  of  those 
which  have  just  been  described. 

In  ancient  buildings  of  Syria  the  influence  of  both  the 


Fig.  163. — FuoM  tiik  Goldes  Doou  ok  Jkiilsalkm.    Time  of  Justinian,     ad.  5(j0. 

Eoman  and  the  Byzantine  models  can  be  traced.  No 
more  characteristic  specimens  of  Byzantine  foliage  can 
be  desired  than  some  to  be  found  in  Palestine,  as  for  ex- 


220  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

ample  the  Golden  Gate  at  Jerusalem,  which  we  illustrate 
/■Fig.  163);   but  in  the  deserted  cities  of  Central  Syria  a 


Fig.  164. — Church  at  Tcbmaxix  in  Stria.    4th  and  5th  Centuut. 

group  of  exceptional  and  most  interesting  buildings,  both 
secular  and  sacred,  exists,  which,  as  described  by  De  Vogiie,* 

•  '  Syrie  Centrale.' 


BYZANTINE. 


221 


seem  to  display  a  free  and  very  original  treatment  based 
upon  Koman  more  than  Byzantine  ideas.  We  illustrate 
the  exterior  of  one  of  these,  the  church  at  Turmanin 
(Fig.  164).  This  is  a  building  divided  into  a  nave  and 
aisles  and  with  a  vestibule.  Two  low  towers  flank  the 
central  gable,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  openings  of 
depressed  proportion,  mostly  semicircular-headed,  and 
with  the  arches  usually  springing  from  square  piers, 
mark  the  building  ;  while  the  use  made  of  columns 
strongly  resembles  the  manner  in  which  in  later  times 
they  were  introduced  by  the  Gothic  architects. 


Fig.  165.— Toweb  of  a  Russian  Church. 


^ 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

ROMANESQUE   ARCHITECTURE. 

THE  term  Eomanesque  is  here  used  to  indicate  a 
style  of  Cliristiaii  architecture,  founded  on  Eoman 
art,  which  prevailed  throughout  Western  Europe  from  the 
close  of  the  period  of  basilican  architecture  to  the  rise  of 
Gothic ;  except  in  those  isolated  districts  where  the  influ- 
ence of  Byzantium  is  visible.  By  some  writers  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  word  is  restricted  within  narrower  limits; 
but  excellent  authorities  can  be  adduced  for  the  employ- 
ment of  it  in  the  wide  sense  here  indicated.  Indeed  some 
difficulty  exists  in  deciding  what  shall  and  what  shall  not 
be  termed  Eomanesque,  if  any  more  restricted  definition 
of  its  meaning  is  adopted ;  while  under  this  general  term, 
if  applied  broadly,  many  closely  allied  local  varieties — as, 
for  example,  Lombard,  Ehenish,  Eomance,  Saxon,  and 
Norman — can  be  conveniently  included.        i 

The  spectacle  which  Europe  presented  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium  and  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Northern  tribes  was  melancholy  in  the 
extreme.  Nothing  but  the  church  retained  any  semblance 
of  organised  existence;  and  when  at  last  some  kind  of 
order  began  to  emerge  from  a  chaos  of  universal  ruin, 
and  churches  and  monastic  buildings  began  to  be  built  in 
Western  Europe,  all  of  them  looked  to  Eome,  and  not 
to  Constantinople,  as  their  common  ecclesiastical  centre. 
It  is  not  surprising  that,  as  soon  as  differences  between 
the  ritual  of  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Church  sprang 
up,  a  contrast  between  Eastern  and  Western  architecture 
should  establish  itself,  and  that  the  early  structures  of 


ROMANESQUE. 


223 


the  many  countries  where  the  Eoman  Church  flourished 
never  wandered  far  from  the  Eoman  type,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  localities  where  circumstances  favoured  direct 
intercourse  with  the  East.  The  architecture  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  adhered  quite  as 
closely  to  the  models  of  Byzantium, 

The  style,  so  far  as  is  known,  was  for  a  long  time  almost, 
if  not  absolutely,  the 
same  over  a  very  large 
part  of  Western  Chris- 
tendom, and  it  has  re- 
ceived from  Mr.  Free- 
man the  ajipropriate 
designation  of  Primi- 
tive Eomanesque,  It 
was  not  till  the  tenth 
century,  or  later,  that 
distinctive  varieties  be- 
gan to  make  their  ap- 
pearance ;  and  though 
that  which  was  built 
earlier  than  that  date 
has,  through  rebuild- 
ings  and  enlargements 
as  well  as  natural  de- 
cay, been  in  many 
cases  swept  away,  still 
enough  may  be  met 
with  to  show  us  what  the  buildings  of  that  remote  time 
were  like. 

The  churches  are  usually  small,  and  have  an  apsidal  east 
end.  The  openings  are  rude,  with  round-headed  arches 
and  small  single  or  two-light   windows,  and   the  outer 


Fig.  Ifi6. — TowKR  op  Eaul's 
Bauton  Church. 


224  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

walls  are  generally  marked  by  flat  pilasters  of  very 
slight  projection.  Towers  are  common,  and  the  openings 
in  them  are  often  divided  into  two  or  more  lights  by 
rude  columns.  The  plan  of  these  churches  was  founded 
on  the  basilica  type,  but  they  do  not  exhibit  the  same 
internal  arrangement;  and  it  is  very  noteworthy  that 
many  of  them  show  marks  of  having  been  vaulted,  or  §it 
least  partly  vaulted ;  and  not  covered,  as  the  basilicas 
usually  were,  by  timber  roofs.  Even  a  country  so  remote 
as  Great  Britain  possessed  in  the  10th  century  many  build- 
ings of  Primitive  Eomanesque  character ;  and  in  such  Saxon 
churches  as  those  of  Worth,  Brixworth,  Dover,  or  Bradford, 
and  such  towers  as  those  of  Earl's  Barton  (Fig.  166), 
Trinity  Church  Colchester,  Barnack,  or  Somptiug,  we  have 
specimens  of  the  style  remaining  to  the  present  day. 

By  degrees,  as  buildings  of  greater  extent  and  more 
ornament  were  erected,  the  local  varieties  to  which  re- 
ference has  been  made  began  to  develop  themselves. 
In  Lombardy  and  North  Italy,  for  example,  a  Lombard 
Romanesque  style  can  be  recognised  distinctly;  here  a 
series  of  churches  were  built,  many  of  them  vaulted,  but 
not  many  of  the  largest  size.  Most  of  them  were  on 
substantially  the  same  plan  as  the  basilicas,  though  a  con- 
siderable number  of  circular  or  polygonal  churches  were 
also  built.  Sant'  Ambrogio  at  Milan,  and  some  of  the 
churches  at  Brescia,  Pavia,  and  Lucca,  may  be  cited  as 
well-known  examples  of  early  date,  and  a  little  later  the 
cathedrals  of  Parma,  Modena,  and  Piacenza  (Fig.  167), 
and  San  Zenone  at  Verona.  These  churches  are  all  dis- 
tinguished by  the  free  use  of  small  ornamental  arches  and 
narrow  pilaster-strips  externally,  and  the  employment  of 
piers  with  half-shafts  attached  to  them,  rather  than 
columns,  in  the  arcades ;  they  have  fine  bell-towers ;  cir- 


ROMANESQUE. 


225 


cular  windows  often  occupy  the  gables,  and  very  fre- 
quently the  walls  have  been  built  of,  or  ornamented  with, 
coloured  materials.  The  sculpture — grotesque,  vigorous, 
and  full  of  rich  variety — which  distinguishes  many  of  these 
buildings,  and  which  is  to  be  found  specially  enriching 
the  doorways,  is  of  great  interest,  and  began  early  to 
develop  a  character  that  is  quite  distinctive. 


Fig.  167.— Cathedral  at  Piacekza. 


Turning  to  Germany,  we  find  that  a  very  strong  re- 
semblance existed  between  the  Eomanesque  churches  of 
that  country  and  those  of  North  Italy.'  At  Aix-la-Chapelle 
a  polygonal  church  exists,  built  by  Charlemagne,  and 
which  tradition  asserts  was  designed  on  the  model  of 
San  Yitale  at  Eavenna.  The  resemblance  is  undoubted, 
but  the  German  church  is  by  no  means  an  exact  copy 
of  Justinian's  building.  Early  examples  of  German 
Eomanesque  exist  in  the  cathedrals  of  Mayence,  Worms, 
and  Spires,  and  a  steady  advance  was  made  till  a  point 

Q 


226  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

was  reached  (in  the  twelfth  century)  at  which  the  style 
may  be  said  to  have  attained  the  highest  development 
which  Komanesque  architecture  received  in  any  countr)'' 
of  Europe. 

The  arcaded  ornament  (the  arches  being  very  frequently 
open  so  as  to  form  a  real  arcade)  which  was  noticed  as 
occurring  in  Lombard  churches,  belongs  also  to  German 
ones,  though  the  secondary  internal  arcade  (triforium)  is 
absent  from  some  of  the  early  examples.  Piers  are  used 
more  frequently  than  columns  in  the  interiors,  and  are 
often  very  plain.  From  an  early  date  the  use  of  a  western 
as  well  as  an  eastern  apse  seems  to  have  been  common 
in  Germany,  and  high  western  fa9ades  extending  between 
two  towers^  were  features  specially  met  with  in  that 
country.  /Tor  a  notice  and  some  illustrations  of  the 
latest  and  best  phase  of  German  Eomanesque,  which  may 
with  propriety  be  termed  "  round-arched  Gothic,"  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  companion  volume  of  this  series.* 
^/  France  exhibits  more  than  one  variety  of  Eomanesque ; 
for  not  only,  as  remarked  in  the  chapter  on  Byzantine  Art, 
is  the  influence  of  Greek  or  Venetian  artists  traceable  in 
the  buildings  of  certain  districts,  especially  Perigueux,  but 
it  is  clear  that  in  others  the  existence  of  fine  examples 
of  Eoman  architecture  (Fig.  168)  afiected  the  design  of 
buildings  down  to  and  during  the  eleventh  century,  r  This 
influence  may,  for  example,  be  detected  in  the  use,  (in  the 
churches  at  Autun,  Valence,  and  Avignon,  of  capitals, 
pilasters,  and  other  features  closely  resembling  classic 
originals,  and  in  the  employment  through  a  great  part  of 
Central  and  Northern  France  of  vaulted  roofs. 
A  specially  French  feature  is  the  ohevet,  a  group  of 

*  '  Gothic  and  Kenaissance  Architecture,'  chap,  vii 


ROMANESQUE. 


227 


apsidal  chapels  which  were  built  round  the  apse  itself, 
and  which  combined  with  it  to  make  of  the  east  end  of  a 
great  cathedral  a  singularly  rich  and  ornate  composition. 


Fig.  168.— Vaults  op  the  kxcavated  Roman  Baths,  i.\  thk 
Mis£b  de  Clunt,  Pabis. 

This  feature,  originating  in  Eomanesque  churches,  was 
retained  in  France  through  the  whole  of  the  Gothic 
period,!  and  a  good  example  of  it  may  be  seen  in  the  large 
Eomanesque  church  of  St.  Semin  at  Toulouse,  which  we 
illustrate  (Fig.  169).  ^The  transepts  were  usually  well 

Q  2 


Fig.  169.— Church  of  St.  Sernin,  Toulou.se. 


ROMANESQUE. 


229 


tnarked.  Th«  nave  arcades  generally  sprang  from  piers 
(Fig.  170),  inore  rarely  from  columns.  Arches  are  con- 
stantly met  with  recessed, 
i.e.  in  receding  planes,*  the 
first  stage  of  progress  to- 
wards a  Gothic  treatment, 
and  are  occasionally  slightly 
moulded  (Fig.  171).  Western 
doorways  are  often  highly 
enriched  with  sculpture ;  and 
the  carving  and  sculpture 
generally,  though  often  rude, 
are  full  of  vitality.  Towers 
occur,  usually  square,  more 
rarely  octagonal.  Window- 
lights  are  frequently  grouped 
two  or  more  under  one  arch. 
Capitals  of  a  basket-shape, 
and  with  a  square  abacus, 
often  richly  sculptured,  are 
employed. 

In  Normandy,  and  gene- 
rally in  the  North  of  France, 
round  -  arched  architecture 
was  excellently  carried  out, 
and  churches  remarkable 
both  for  their  extent  and 
their  great  dignity  and  soli- 
dity were  erected.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  however,  Norman  architecture,  especially 
as  met  with  in  Normandy  itself,  is  less  ornate  than  the 


^^H 


Fio.  170. — Nave  Arcade  at  St. 
Sersin,  Toulouse. 


■  Gothic  and  Eenaissance  Architecture,'  chap.  v.  p.  62. 


2ao 


CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


Komanesqne  of  Southern  France ;  in  fact  some  of  tlie  best 
examples  seem  to  suffer  from  a  deficiency  of  ornament. 


y 


Fiu.  17 1.— Arches  is  recedikg  flakes  at  St.  Serkin,  Toclouse. 


The  large  and  well-knoAvn  churches  at  Caen,  St.  Etienne, 
otherwise  the  Abhaye  aux  Hommes— interesting  to  English- 


ROMANESQUE.  231 

men  as  having  been  founded  by  William  the  Conqueror  im- 
mediately after  the  Conquest — and  the  Trinite,  or  Abbaye 
aux  Dames,  are  excellent  examples  of  early  Norman  archi- 
tecture, but  the  student  must  not  forget  that  additions 
have  been  made  to  them,  which,  if  they  add  to  their 
beauty,  at  the  same  time  alter  their  character.  For  ex- 
ample, in  St.  Etienne,  the  upper  part  of  the  western 
towers  and  the  fine  spires  with  which  they  are  crowned 
were  built  subsequent  to  the  original  structure,  as  was 
also,  in  all  probability,  the  chevet,  or  eastern  limb.  It 
seems  probable  also  that  the  vaulting  may  not  be  what 
was  contemplated  in  the  original  plan. 

St.  Etienne  is  364  ft.  long,  and  is  lofty  in  its  pro- 
portions. It  has  a  nave  and  aisles,  arcades  resting  on 
piers,  and  strongly -marked  transepts,  and  has  two  western 
towers  with  the  gable  of  the  nave  between  them.  The 
west  front  is  well  designed  in  three  stories,  having 
strongly-marked  vertical  divisions  in  the  buttresses  of 
the  towers,  and  equally  distinct  horizontal  divisions  in 
the  three  doorways  below,  and  two  ranges  of  windows, 
each  of  five  lights,  above.  There  is  no  circular  west 
window.     The  nave  and  aisles  are  vaulted. 

Besides  other  cathedral  churches,  such  for  example  as 
those  of  Bayeux  and  Evreux,  in  which  considerable  parts 
of  the  original  structures  remain,  there  exist  throughout 
Normandy  and  Brittany  many  parochial  churches  and 
monastic  buildings,  exhibiting,  at  least  in  some  portions 
of  their  structure,  the  same  characteristics  as  those  of 
St.  Etienne ;  and  it  is  clear  that  an  immense  number  of 
buildings,  the  beauty  and  even  refinement  of  which  are 
conspicuous,  must  have  been  erected  in  Northern  France 
during  the  eleventh  and  the  early  years  of  the  twelfth 
centuries,  the  period  to  which  Norman  architecture  in 
France  may  be  said  to  belong. 


232  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

In  Great  Britain,  as  has  been  already  pointed  out, 
enough  traces  of  Saxon — that  is  to  say,  Primitive  Eoman- 
esque — architecture  remain  to  show  that  many  simple, 
though  comparatively  rude,  buildings  must  have  been 
erected  previous  to  the  Norman  Conquest.  Traces  exist 
also  of  an  influence  which  the  rapid  advance  that  had  been 
made  by  the  art  of  building  as  practised  in  Normandy 
was  exerting  in  our  island.  The  buildings  at  Westminster 
Abbey  raised  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  though  they  have 
been  almost  all  rebuilt,  have  left  just  sufficient  traces 
behind  to  enable  us  to  recognise  that  they  were  of  bold 
design.  The  plan  of  the  Confessor's  church  was  laid  out 
upon  a  scale  almost  as  large  as  that  of  the  present 
structure.  The  monastic  buildings  were  extensive.  The 
details  of  the  work  were,  some  of  them,  refined  and  deli- 
cate, and  resembled  closely  those  employed  in  Norman 
buildings  at  that  time.  Thus  it  appears  that,  even  had  the 
Conquest  not  taken  place,  no  small  influence  would  have 
been  exerted  upon  buildings  in  England  by  the  advance 
then  being  made  in  France;  but  instead  of  a  gradual 
improvement  being  so  produced,  a  sudden  and  rapid 
revolution  was  effected  by  the  complete  conquest  of  the 
country  and  its  occupation  by  nobles  and  ecclesiastics  from 
Normandy,  who,  enriched  by  the  plunder  of  the  conquered 
country,  were  eager  to  establish  themselves  in  permanent 
buildings. 

Shortly  after  the  Conquest  distinctive  features  began  to 
show  themselves.  Norman  architecture  in  England  soon 
became  essentially  different  from  what  it  was  in  Normandy, 
and  we  possess  in  this  country  a  large  series  of  fine  works 
showing  the  growth  of  this  imported  style,  from  the  early 
simplicity  of  the  chapel  in  the  Tower  of  London  to  such 
elaboration  as  that  of  the  later  parts  of  Durham  Cathedral. 

The  number  of  churches  founded  or  rebuilt  soon  after 


ROMANESQUE.  233 

the  Norman  Conquest  must  have  been  enormous,  for  in 
examining  churches  of  every  date  and  in  every  part  of 
England  it  is  common  to  find  some  fragment  of  Norman 
work  remaining  from  a  former  church :  this  is  very 
frequently  a  doorway  left  standing  or  built  into  walls  of 
later  date :  and,  in  addition  to  these  fragments,  no  small 
number  of  churches,  and  more  than  one  cathedral, 
together  with  numerous  castles,  remain  in  whole  or  in 
part  as  they  were  erected  by  the  original  builders. 

Norman  architecture  is  considered  to  have  prevailed  in 
England  for  more  than  a  centuiy ;  that  is  to  say,  from  the 
Conquest  (1066)  to  the  accession  of  Eichard  I.  (1189). 
For  some  details  of  the  marks  by  which  Norman  work 
can  be  recognised  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  companion 
volume;*  we  propose  here  to  give  an  account  of  the 
broader  characteristics  of  the  buildings  erected  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  style. 

The  oldest  remaining  parts  of  Canterbury  Cathedral  are 
specimens  of  Norman  architecture  executed  in  England 
immediately  after  the  Conquest.  This  great  church  Avas 
rebuilt  by  Archbishop  Lanfranc  (whose  episcopate  lasted 
from  1070  to  1089),  and  in  extent  as  laid  out  by  him  was 
very  nearly  identical  with  the  existing  structure ;  almost 
every  portion  has,  however,  been  rebuilt,  so  that  of  his 
work  only  the  towers  forming  transepts  to  the  choir,  and 
some  other  fragments,  now  remain.  More  complete  and 
equally  ancient  is  the  chapel  in  the  Tower  of  London, 
which  consists  of  a  small  apsidal  church  with  nave  and 
aisles,  vaulted  throughoiit,  and  in  excellent  preservation. 
This  building,  though  very  charming,  is  almost  destitute 

*  '  Gothic  and  Eenaissance  Architecture,'  chap.  ii.  p.  23. 


234 


CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


of  ornament.  A  little  more  ornate,  and  still  a  good 
example  of  early  Norman,  is  St.  Peter's  Church,  North- 
ampton (Fig.  172),  the  interior  of  which  we  illustrate. 
To  these  examples  of  early  Norman  we  may  add  a  large  part 
of  Eochester  Cathedral,  and  the  transepts  of  Winchester. 


Fig.  172. — Norman  Arches  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  Northampton. 


The  transepts  of  Exeter  present  a  specimen  of  rather  more 
advanced  Norman  work ;  and  in  the  cathedrals  of  Peter- 
borough and  Durham  the  style  can  he  seen  at  its  best. 

In   most   Norman    buildings   we    find    very    excellent 
masonry  and  massive  construction.     The  exteriors  of  west 


EOMANESQUE.  235 

fronts,  transepts,  and  towers  show  great  skill  and  care  in 
their  composition,  the  openings  being  always  well  grouped, 
and  contrasted  with  plain  wall-spaces ;  and  a  keen  sense 
of  proportion  is  perceptible.  The  Konnan  architects  had 
at  command  a  rich,  if  perhaps  a  rather  rude,  ornamenta- 
tion, which  they  generally  confined  to  individual  features, 
especially  doorways ;  on  these  they  lavished  mouldings 
and  sculpture,  the  elaboration  of  which  was  set  off  by  the 
plainness  of  the  general  structure.  In  the  interior  of 
the  churches  we  usually  meet  with  piers  of  massive  pro- 
portion, sometimes  round,  sometimes  octagonal,  sometimes 
rectangular,  and  a  shaft  is  sometimes  carried  up  the  face 
of  the  piers;  as,  for  example,  in  Peterborough  Cathedral 
(Fig.  173).  The  capitals  of  the  columns  and  piers  have  a 
square  abacus,  and,  generally  speaking,  are  of  the  cushion- 
shaped  sort,  commonly  known  as  basket-capitals,  and  are 
profusely  carved.  The  larger  churches  have  the  nave 
roofed  with  a  timber  roof,  and  at  Peterborough  there 
is  a  wooden  ceiling;  in  these  cases  the  aisles  only  are 
vaulted,  but  in  some  small  churches  the  whole  building  has 
Ijeen  so  covered.  Buttresses  are  seldom  required,  owing 
to  the  great  mass  of  the  walls  ;  when  employed  they  have 
a  very  slight  projection,  but  the  same  strips  or  pilastei-s 
which  are  used  in  German  Eomanesque  occur  here  also. 
Low  towers  w^ere  common,  and  have  been  not  unfrequently 
preserved  in  cases  where  the  rest  of  the  building  has  been 
removed.  As  the  style  advanced,  the  proportions  of  arcades 
became  moi-e  lofty,  and  shafts  became  more  slender,  deco- 
rative arcades  (Fig.  174)  became  more  common,  and  in 
these  and  many  other  changes  the  approaching  transition 
to  Gothic  may  be  easily  detected. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  many  Norman  doorways 
remaining  in  parish  chiirches  of  which  all  other  parts 
have  been  rebuilt.     These  doorways  are  generally  very 


236 


CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


ricli ;    they  possess    a    series    of    mouldings    sometimes 

springing  from 
shafts,  some- 
times running 
not  only  round 
the  arched  head, 
but  also  up  the 
jambs  of  the 
opening ;  and 
each  moulding 
is  richly  carved, 
very  often  with 
a  repetition  of 
the  same  orna- 
ment on  each 
voussoir  of  the 
arch.  Occasion- 
ally, but  not  fre- 
quently, large 
portions  of  wall- 
surface  are 
covered  by  a 
diaper ;  that  is 
to  say,  an  orna- 
ment constantly 
repeated  so  as 
to  produce  a 
general  sense  of 
enrichment. 

Norman  cas- 
tles, as  well  as 
churches,  were 
built  in  great 
numbers  shortly 


I'u;.  173.— Na\i:  Ai;cai>e,  PmEKUORoroH  Cathedkai.. 


ROMANESQUE. 


237 


after  the  Conquest,  and  not  a  few  remain.  The  strong- 
hold which  a  follower  of  the  Conqueror  built  in  order  to 
establish  himself  on  the  lands  granted  him  was  always 
a  very  sturdy  massive  square  tower,   low   in   proportion 


Fig.  174.— Decorative  Arcade  from  Canterbury  Cathedral. 


to  its  width,  built  very  strongly,  and  with  every  pro- 
vision for  sustaining  an  attack  or  even  a  siege.  Such  a 
tower  is  called  "  a  keep  ;  "  and  in  many  famous  castles,  as 
for  example  the  Tower  of  London,  the  keep  forms  the 
nucleus  round  which  buildings  and  courtyards  of  later 
date  have  clustered.  In  some  few  instances,  however,  as 
for  example  at  Colchester,  the  keep  is  the  only  part  now 


238 


CHRISTIAN   ArCHITECTURE. 


standing,  and  it  is  probable  that  when  originally  built 
these  Norman  castles  were  not  much  encumbered  with  out- 
buildings. Eochester  Castle  is  a  fine  example  of  a  Norman 
keep,  though  it  has  suffered  much  from  decay  and  injury. 


Fig.  us. — Hkdingham  Castle. 


The  very  large  Norman  keep  of  the  Tower  of  London, 
known  as  the  White  Tower,  and  containing  the  chapel 
already  described,  has  been  much  modernised  and  altered, 
but   retains   the  fine  mass   of  its   original   construction. 


ROMANESQUE.  239 

Perhaps  the  best  (and  best-preserved)  example  is  Hed- 
ingham  Castle  in  Essex,  which  we  illustrate  (Figs.  175 
and  176).     From  the  remains  of  this  building  some  idea 


Fig.  176.— Iktf.riok  of  Hedisgham  Castle. 

of  the  interior  of  the  hall — the  chief  room  within  a 
Norman  keep — may  be  obtained,  as  well  as  of  the  general 
external  appearance  of  such  a  structure. 


Fig.  177. — Rounded  Arch  op  Chuech  at  Gelnhausen. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


CHRISTIAN  ROUND-ARCHED  ARCHITECTURE. 


Analysis. 


NOTWITHSTANDING  very  wide  differences  which 
undoubtedly  exist,  there  is  a  sufficient  bond  of 
union  between  the  Basilican,  the  Byzantine,  and  the 
Romanesque  styles,  to  render  it  possible  for  us  to  include 
the  characteristics  of  the  three  in  an  analysis  of  Christian 
round-arched  architecture. 

The  Plan  or  floor-disposition  of  the  basilican  churches,  as 
has  been  pointed  out,  was  distinctive.  The  atrium,  or 
forecourt,  the  porch,  the  division  into  nave  and  aisles; 
the  transept,  the  great  arch,  and  the  apse  beyond  it  with 
the  episcopal  seat  at  the  back  behind  the  altar;  the 
ambos ;  and  the  enclosure  for  the  choir,  were  typical  fea- 
tures.    Detached  towers  sometimes   occurred.     The  plan 


ANALYSIS  :    THE   PLAN. 


241 


of  Eomanesque  churches  was  based  upon  that  of  the 
basilica ;  the  atrium  was  often  omitted,  so  was  the  transept 
sometimes  ;  but,  when  retained,  the  transept  was  generally- 
made  more  prominent  than  in  the  basilica.  The  position 
of  the  altar  and  of  the  enclosure  for  the  choir  were  changed. 


Fig.  178. — Plan  of  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  at  Cologne. 


but  in  other  respects  the  basilica  plan  was  continued. 
In  Germany,  however,  apsidal  transepts  (Fig.  178)  were 
built.  Towers  were  common,  occasionally  detached,  but 
more  frequently  joined  to  the  main  building. 

Circular  and  polygonal  buildings  for  use  as  baptisteries, 


242 


CHRISTIAN  ROUND-AKCHED  ARCHITECTURE. 


and  sometimes  as  churches,  existed  both  in  the  basilican 
and  the  Eomanesque  time. 

Byzantine  church  plans  are  all  distinguished  by  their 
great  central  square  space,  covered  by  the  central  dome, 
flanked  usually  by  four  arms,  comparatively  short,  and 
all  of  equal  length ;  and  the  plan  of  the  buildings  is 
generally  square,  or  nearly  so,  in  outline.  Circular  and 
polygonal  buildings  sometimes  occur. 

Few  traces  of  the  arrangement  of  military,  secular, 
or  domestic  buildings  earlier 
than  the  twelfth  century  re- 
main, but  some  examples  of  a 
cloister  at  the  side  of  the  nave 
(generally  the  south  side)  of  a 
church,  giving  or  intended  to 
give  access  to  monastic  build- 
ings, still  exist. 

The  Walls  of  such  buildings 
as  have  come  down  to  us  are,  it 
may  be  well  understood,  strong, 
since  the  most  recent  of  this 
round-arched  series  of  buildings 
must  be  about  seven  hundred 
years  old.  Fine  masonry  was 
not  much  employed  till  the  time 
of  the  Normans,  but  the  Roman 
plan  of  building  with  bricks  or 
rubble  and  casing  the  face  of  the 
walls  with  marble  or  mosaic,  or 
at  least  plaster,  was  generally 
followed.  The  walls  are  carried 
up  as  gables  and  towers  to  a  considerable  extent  (Fig.  179), 
especially  in  Western  countries. 


KiG.  179. — SriKE  OF  Spires 
Cathedbal. 


analysis:  the  roof — the  openings.  243 

The  Boof. — In  a  basilica  this  was  of  timber,  in  a  Byzan- 
tine church  it  consisted  of  a  series  of  domes  ;  in  a  Eoman- 
esque  church  it  was  sometimes  of  timber  as  in  the  basilica, 
but  not  unfrequently  vaulted.  As  a  general  rule  the  vault 
prevailed  in  the  West  and  the  dome  in  the  East ;  and 
such  examples  of  either  sort  of  roof  as  occur  in  those 
provinces  where  the  other  was  usual,  like  the  domed 
churches  in  parts  of  France,  must  be  looked  upon  as 
exceptional. 

The  Openings  are  almost  invariably  arched,  and  seldom,  if 
ever,  covered  by  a  lintel.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add 
that  the  arches  are  always  round.  Almost  always  they 
are  semicircular,  but  instances  of  the  employment  of  a 
segmental  arch,  or  of  one  the  outline  of  which  is  a  little 
more  than  half  a  circle,  may  be  occasionally  met  with. 

Door  openings  are  often  made  important  both  by  size 
and  decoration.  Window  openings  are  usually  small ;  and 
the  grouping  of  two  or  more  lights  under  one  head,  which 
was  so  conspicuous  a  feature  in  Gothic  architecture,  first 
appears  in  Byzantine  buildings,  and  is  met  with  also  in 
Romanesque  ones.  The  mode  of  introducing  light  is  to 
a  certain  extent  characteristic.  The  basilican  churches 
always  possess  a  clerestory,  and  usually  side  windows  in 
the  aisles  ;  and  this  arrangement  is  generally  followed  in 
Eomanesque  buildings,  though  sometimes,  in  Germany, 
the  clerestory  is  omitted.  The  gable  ends  of  the  nave 
and  transepts  are  not  usually  pierced  by  many  or  large 
lights  (Fig.  180) ;  and  when  there  is  a  central  feature,  as 
a  tower,  or  even  a  dome,  little  or  no  light  is  introduced 
through  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Byzantine  churches 
depend  largely  for  light  upon  the  ring  of  windows  which 
commonly  encircles  the  base  of  the  central  dome,  and  some- 
times that  of  the  subsidiary  domes  ;  and  the  gables  are 

R  2 


ANALYSIS  :    THE  COLUMNS.  245 

pierced  so  as  to  supply  any  additional  light  required,  so 
that  windows  are  infrequent  in  the  lower  walls.  Broadly 
speaking,  therefore,  the  Western  churches  have  side- 
lighting  and  the  Eastern  top-lighting. 

The  great  arches  which  carry  the  main  domes  form  a 
notable  feature  in  Eastern  churches,  and  are  of  very  bold 
construction.  In  the  basilican  churches  one  great  arch, 
called  "  the  arch  of  triumph,"  occurs,  and  only  one ;  this 
gives  access  to  the  apse :  and  a  similar  arch,  which  we 
now  denominate  "  the  chancel  arch,"  usually  occupies  a 
corresponding  position  in  all  Eomanesque  churches.  The 
arches  of  the  arcade  separating  the  nave  from  the  aisles 
in  all  Western  churches  are  usually  of  moderate  span. 
In  some  ancient  basilicas  these  arches  are  replaced  by 
a  horizontal  beam. 

The  Columns. — In  basilicas  these  were  of  antique  type ; 
very  often  they  had  actually  been  obtained  by  the  demo- 
lition of  older  buildings,  and  when  made  purposely  they 
were  as  a  rule  of  the  same  general  character.  The  same 
might  be  said  of  those  introduced  into  Byzantine  build- 
ings, though  a  divergence  from  the  classic  type  soon 
manifested  itself,  and  small  columns  began  to  appear  as 
decorative  features.  In  Eomanesque  buildings  the  columns 
are  very  varied  indeed,  and  shafts  are  frequently  intro- 
duced into  the  decoration  of  other  features.  They  occur 
in  the  jambs  of  doorways  with  mouldings  or  sub-arches 
springing  from  them;  long  shafts  and  short  ones,  fre- 
quently supporting  ornamental  arcades,  are  employed 
both  internally  and  externally ;  and  altogether  that  use 
of  the  column  as  a  means  of  decoration,  of  which  Gothic 
architecture  presents  so  many  examples,  first  began  in  the 
Eomanesque  style. 

The  capitals  employed  in  Eomanesque  buildings  gene- 


246  CHRISTIAN   ROUND-ARCHED   ARCHITECTURE. 

rally  depart  considerably  from  the  classic  type,  being  based 
on  the  primitive  cube  capital  (Fig,  181),  but,  as  a  rule, 

in  Eastern  as  well  as  in  basi- 
"     IHT:  lican    churches,    they   bear   a 

tolerably  close  resemblance  to 
classic  ones. 

The  Ornaments  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  Christian 
round-arched  period  are  a  veiy 
interesting  subject  of  study, 
and  will  repay  close  attention. 

Fig.  I81.-CUBIC  CapTtal.  ^^^  ^^^  basilican  style  mould- 

ings occur  but  seldom  :  where 
met  with,  they  are  all  of  the  profiles  common  in  Koman 
architecture,  but  often  rudely  and  clumsily  worked. 
Carving  partakes  als6  of  classic  character,  though  it  is 
not  difficult  to  detect  the  commencement  of  that  meta- 
morphosis which  was  effected  in  Byzantium,  and  which 
can  hardly  be  better  described  than  in  the  following 
paragraph  from  the  pen  of  Sir  Digby  Wyatt: — "The 
foliage  is  founded  on  ancient  Greek  rather  than  on 
Eoman  traditions,  and  is  characterised  by  a  peculiarly 
sharp  outline.  All  ornamental  sculpture  is  in  compara- 
tively low  relief,  and  the  absence  of  human  and  other 
figures  is  very  marked.  Enrichments  were  almost  invari- 
ably so  carved,  by  sinking  portions  only  of  the  surfaces 
and  leaving  the  arrises  and  principal  places  untouched,  as 
to  preserve  the  original  constructive  forms  given  by  the 
mason  (Fig.  184).  The  employment  of  the  drill  instead 
of  the  chisel,  so  common  in  debased  Koman  work,  was 
retained  as  a  very  general  practice  by  the  Greek  carvers, 
and  very  often  with  excellent  effect.  The  foliage  of  the 
acanthus,    although    imitated    from    the    antique,   quite 


ANALYSIS  :    THE   ORNAMENTS. 


247 


changed  its  character,  becoming  more  geometrical  and 
conventional  in  its  form.  That  which  particularly  dis- 
tinguishes Lombard  from  Byzantine  art  is  its  sculpture 
abounding  with  grotesque  imagery,  with  illustrations  of 
every-day  life,  of  a  fan- 
ciful mythology  not  yet 
quite  extinct,  and  allu- 
sions, no  longer  symbolic 
but  direct,  to  the  Chris- 
tian creed ;  the  latter 
quality  a  striking  evi- 
dence of  the  triumph  of 
the  Eoman  Church  over 
all  iconoclastic  adver- 
saries in  Greece."  What 
is  here  asserted  of  Lom- 
bard carving  is  true  of 
that  in  the  Eomanesque 
buildings  in  Germany, 
Scandinavia  (Fig.  182), 
France,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  in  Great  Britain , 
though  in  our  own  coun- 
try a  large  proportion  of 
the  ornamental  carving 
consists  simply  of  deco- 
rative patterns,  such  as 
the  chevron,  billet,  and 

zig-zag ;  and  sculpture  containing  figures  and  animals  is 
less  common. 

The  mouldings  of  Romanesque  buildings  are  simple,  and 
at  first  were  few  in  number,  but  by  degrees  they  become 
more  conspicuous,  and  before  the  transition  to  Gothic  they 


Fig.  182. — Doorway  at  Tind,  Norway. 
(Emu  of  12th  Century.) 


248 


CHRISTIAN   ROUND-ARCHED   ARCHITECTURE. 


assumed  considerable  importance  (Fig.  183)  and  added  not 
a  little  to  the  architectural  character  of  the  buildings. 


Fig.  183.— Mouldixgs  of  Poktal  of  St.  James's  Church  at  Koesfeld. 

Coloured  decoration,  especially  in  mosaic,  was  a  con- 
spicuous feature  in  basilican  churches,  and  still  more  so 
in   those   of   the   Byzantine    style;    such    decoration   in 


ANALYSIS  :    THE   ORNAMENTS.  249 

Eomanesque  churches  was  not  infrequent,  but  it  was 
more  commonly  painted  in  fresco  or  tempera.  The  glass 
mosaic-work  to  be  found  on  the  walls  of  Early  Christian 
churches,  both  basilican  and  Byzantine,  but  less  frequently 
Eomanesque,  is  most  interesting  and  beautiful :  "  it 
was,"  says  the  high  authority  already  quoted,  "  employed 
only  to  represent  and  reproduce  the  forms  of  existing 
objects,  such  as  figures,  architectural  forms  and  conven- 
tional foliage,  which  were  generally  relieved  with  some 
slight  indication  of  shading  upon  a  gold  ground — the 
whole  being  bedded  in  the  cement  covering  the  walls  and 
vaults  of  the  basilicas  and  churches." 

"  The  design  of  both  figures  and  ornaments  was, 
generally  speaking,  very  rude,  though  not  without  an 
occasional  rising  in  some  of  the  figures  to  a  certain  sub- 
limity, derivable  principally  from  the  great  simplicity 
of  the  forms  and  draperies  and  the  earnest  grandiose 
expression  depicted  on  their  countenances.  The  pieces 
of  glass  employed  in  the  formation  of  this  work  are  very 
iri'egular  in  shapes  and  sizes,  of  all  colours  and  tones  of 
colour,  and  the  ground  tint  almost  invariably  prevailing  is 
gold.  The  manner  of  execution  is  always  large  and  coarse, 
and  rarely  approaches  in  neatness  of  joint  and  regularity 
of  bedding  to  the  (ancient  Eoman)  '  opus  majus  vermicu- 
latus  ; '  yet,  notwithstanding  these  blemishes,  the  efiect  of 
gorgeous,  luxurious,  and  at  the  same  time  solemn  decora- 
tion produced  is  unattainable  by  any  other  means  as  yet 
employed  as  structural  embellishment.  How  noble  and 
truly  ecclesiastical  in  character  are  the  gold-clad  interiors 
of  Monreale  Cathedral,  of  the  Capella  Palatina  at  Palermo, 
of  St.  Mark  at  Venice,  San  Miniato  at  Florence,  or  Santi 
ApoUinare  and  Vitale  at  Eavenna,  the  concurrent  testi- 
mony of  all  travellers  attests." 


250  CHRISTIAN   ROUND-ARCHED   ARCHITECTURE. 

A  finer  kind  of  glass  mosaic  arranged  in  geometrical 
patterns  was  made  use  of  to  enrich  the  ambos,  screens, 
episcopal  chairs,  sepulchral  ornaments,  and  other  similar 
fi.ttings  of  churches,  and  was  often  of  great  beauty.  A 
third  sort  of  mosaic — the  Alexandrine  work  (opus  Alex- 
andrinum) — used  for  pavements,  has  been  already  alhided 
to ;  this  was  extremely  effective,  but  its  use  appears  to 
have  been  less  general  than  that  of  the  glass  mosaics  for 
the  walls. 

The  Architectural  Character  of  the  basilican  churches  may 
be  briefly  characterised  as  venerable  and  dignified,  but 
yet  cheerful  and  bright  rather  than  forbidding ;  they  are, 
as  interiors,  impressive  but  not  oppressive,  solemn  but  not 
gloomy.  Comparatively  little  attention  was  paid  to  ex- 
ternal effect,  and  there  is  not  often  much  in  them  to  strike 
the  passer-by.  The  character  of  Byzantine  interiors  is 
far  more  rich,  and  even  splendid ;  but  it  is  more  gloomy, 
and  often  is  solemn  and  grand  to  the  last  degree.  In 
many  cases  these  churches  possess  fine  exteriors ;  and  for 
the  level  sky-line  produced  by  the  long  straight  roofs  of  the 
basilica,  a  more  or  less  pyramidal  composition,  showing 
curved  outlines  rather  than  straight  ones,  is  substituted. 
The  architectural  character  of  the  Eomanesque  buildings 
varies  extremely  with  the  districts  in  which  they  are 
erected ;  but,  generally  speaking,  it  may  be  described  as 
picturesque,  and  even  sometimes  romantic  ;  the  appearance 
of  towers,  prominent  transepts,  and  many  smaller  decora- 
tive features  serves  to  render  the  exteriors  telling  and 
varied,  though  often  somewhat  rude  and  primitive.  A  solid 
and  somewhat  heavy  character  distinguishes  the  interiors 
of  some  varieties  of  Eomanesque  buildings — such,  for 
example,  as  our  own  Early  Norman ;  but  in  our  fully- 
developed  and  late  Norman,  and  still  more  in  the  latest 


ANALYSIS  :    ARCHITECTURAL    CHARACTER. 


251 


German  Eomanesque  churches,  this  disappears  almost 
entirely,  and  much  beauty  and  even  lightness  of  effect 
is  obtained,  without  any  loss  of  that  richness  which  is 
characteristic  of  more  ancient  examples. 


Fig.  184. — Btzastine  Basket-work  Capital  from  San  Michele  in  Affeicisco 
AT  Ravenna. 


Fig.  185. — Arabian  Capital.    Fkom  the  Alhambka. 


CHAPTEK  XV. 


MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


FEW  revolutions  more  sudden,  more  signal,  and  more 
"widespread  are  recorded  in  history  than  that  which 
covered  not  only  the  East  hut  part  of  the  West  with  the 
Mohammedan  religion  and  dominion.  Mohammed  was  born 
either  in  the  year  569  or  570  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
died  A.D.  652.  The  year  of  the  Hegira,  the  era  from 
which  Mohammedans  compute  their  chronology,  is  a.d. 
622,  and  within  little  more  than  a  century  from  this  era 
the  Prophet  was  acknowledged,  and  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Caliph  recognised  eastwards,  in  Arabia,  Syria,  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  Persia,  and  in  India  as  far  as  to  the  Ganges  ; 
and  westwards  along  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  in  Sicily, 
and  in  Spain.  It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  such  a 
wonderful  tide  of  conquest  and  such  a  wide6j)read  change 


EGYPT.  .  253 

of  religion  should  before  long  leave  its  impress  on  tlie 
architecture  of  the  continents  thus  revolutionised;  and 
accordingly  a  Mohammedan  style  soon  rose.  This  style 
did  not  displace  or  override  the  indigenous  art  of  the 
various  countries  where  it  prevailed,  as  Eoman  archi- 
tecture did  in  the  age  of  universal  dominion  under  the 
Empire;  it  assimilated  the  peculiarities  of  each  country, 
and  so  transmuted  them,  that  although  wherever  the 
religion  of  Mohammed  prevails  the  architecture  will  at 
a  glance  confess  the  fact,  still  the  local  or  national 
peculiarities  of  each  country  remain  prominent. 

The  Arahs,  a  nomadic  race  who  lived  in  tents,  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  great  builders  even  in  their  cities.  We 
have  no  authentic  accounts  or  existing  remains  of  very 
early  buildings  even  in  Mecca  or  Medina,  as  the  oldest 
mosques  in  those  cities  have  been  completely  rebuilt.  It 
is  to  Egypt  and  Syria  that  we  must  turn  for  the  most 
ancient  remaining  examples  of  Saracenic  architecture. 
These  consist  of  mosques  and  tombs. 

Egypt. 

A  mosque  —  or  Mohammedan  place  of  worship  —  has 
two  forms.  The  earlier  mosques  are  all  of  them  of  a 
type  the  arrangement  of  which  is  simplicity  itself.  A 
large  open  courtyard,  resembling  the  garth  of  a  cloister, 
with  a  fountain  in  it,  is  surrounded  cloister-wise  by 
arcades  supporting  timber  roofs.  On  the  side  nearest 
Mecca  the  arcades  are  increased  to  several  rows  in  depth, 
so  as  to  cover  a  considerable  space.  This  is  the  part  in 
which  the  congregation  chiefly  assembles ;  here  a  niche  or 
recess  (termed  Kibla),  more  or  less  enriched,  is  formed 
in  which  the  Koran  is  to  be  kept,  and  hard  by  a  pulpit 


254 


MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


is  erected.  For  many  centuries  past,  thougli  not,  it  is 
believed,  from  the  very  earliest  times,  a  minaret  or  high 
tower,  from  the  top  of  which  the  call  to  prayer  is  given, 
has  also  been  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  a  mosque. 

The  second  sort  of  mosque  is  a  domed,  and  sometimes 
vaulted  building  of  a  form  chiefly  suggested  by  the 
Byzantine  domed  churches,  with  a  central  space  and  four 
short  arms.  This  sort  of  mosque  became  almost  universal 
in  Turkey  and  Egypt  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks,  and  the  appropriation  to  Moslem  worship  of 
Santa  Sophia  itself.  The  tombs  are  ornate  and  monumental 
buildings,  or  sanctuaries,  of  the  same  general  character 
as  the  domed  mosques,  and  often  attached  to  them. 

From  very  early  times 
the  arches,  in  the  arcades 
which  have  been  described 
as  virtually  constituting 
the  whole  structure  of  the 
simpler  sort  of  mosque, 
were  pointed.  Liibke  claims 
as  the  earliest  known  and 
dated  example  of  the 
pointed  arch  in  a  Saracenic 
building,  the  Nilometer,  a 
small  structure  on  an  island 
near  Cairo,  which  contains 
pointed  arches  that  must 
have  been  built  either  at 
the  date  of  its  original  con- 
struction in  A.D.  719,  or  at 
latest,  when  it  was  restored  a.d.  821.  The  Mosque  of 
Amrou,  however,  which  was  founded  very  soon  after  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  in  a.d.  G43,  and  is  largely  made  up  of 


Fig.  186. — Horse-shoe  Arch. 


256  MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

materials  obtained  from  older  buildings,  exhibits  pointed 
arches,  not  only  in  the  arcades,  which  probably  have  been 
rebuilt  since  they  were  originally  formed,  but  in  the  outer 
walls,  which  are  likely,  in  part  at  least,  to  be  original. 

Whatever  uncertainty  may  rest  upon  these  very  remote 
specimens  of  pointed  architecture,  there  is  little  if  any 
about  the  Mosque  of  Ibn  Tulun,  also  at  Cairo,  and  built 
A.D.  885,  or,  according  to  another  authority,  a.d.  879. 
Here  arcades  of  bold  pointed  arches  spring  from  piers, 
and  the  effect  of  the  whole  structure  is  noble  and  full 
of  character.  From  that  time  the  pointed  arch  was 
constantly  used  in  Saracenic  buildings  along  with  the 
semicircular  and  the  horse-shoe  arch  (Fig.  186). 

From  the  ninth  century,  then,  the  pointed  arch  was 
in  constant  use.  It  prevailed  in  Palestine  as  well  as  in 
the  adjacent  countries  for  two  centuries  before  it  reached 
the  West,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  there 
seen  by  the  Western  Crusaders,  and  a  knowledge  of  its 
use  and  an  appreciation  of  its  beauty  and  convenience 
were  brought  back  to  Western  Europe  by  the  returning 
ecclesiastics  and  others  at  the  end  of  the  First  Crusade.* 

In  the  eleventh  century  the  splendid  Tombs  of  the 
Caliphs  at  Cairo  were  erected, — buildings  crowned  with 
domes  of  a  graceful  pointed  form,  and  remarkable  for  the 
external  decoration  which  usually  covers  the  whole  sur- 
face of  those  domes.  By  this  time  also,  if  not  earlier,  the 
minaret  had  become  universal.  This  is  a  lofty  tower 
of  slender  proportions,  passing  from  a  square  base  below 
to  a  circular  form  above  (Fig.  187).  A  minaret  is 
often  divided  into  several  stages.  Each  stage  is  then 
marked   by   a    balcony,   and    is,   generally    speaking,   a 

*  The  First  Crusade  lasted  from  a.d.  1095  to  a.d.  1099. 


Kg.  188.— Alhambra.    Hall  of  hie  Abknckicrage!,. 


258  MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

polygon  of  a  greater  number  of  sides  than  the  stage 
below  it. 

In  the  interiors  of  Saracenic  buildings  what  is  generally 
known  as  honeycomb  corbelling  is  constantly  employed 
to  fill  up  corners  and  effect  a  change  of  plan  from  a  square 
below  to  a  circle  or  octagon  above.  This  ornament  is 
formed  by  the  use  of  a  series  of  small  brackets,  each 
course  of  them  overhanging  those  below,  and  produces 
an  effect  some  idea  of  which  may  be  gathered  from  our 
illustration  (Fig.  188)  of  the  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages  in 
the  Alhambra.  The  interiors  when  not  domed  are  often 
covered  by  wooden  or  plaster  ceilings,  more  or  less  richly 
decorated,  such  as  are  shown  in  the  view  of  one  of  the 
arcades  of  the  Mosque  "El  Moyed,"  Cairo  (Fig.  189), 
where  the  horse-shoe  and  pointed  arches  can  both  be  seen. 
This  illustration  also  shows  timber  ties,  at  the  feet  of 
the  arches,  such  as  were  commonly  used  by  the  earlier 
Saracenic  builders. 

The  surfaces  of  the  interiors  of  most  Mohammedan 
buildings  in  all  countries  are  covered  with  the  most 
exquisite  decorations  in  colour.  Imitations  of  natural 
objects  being  forbidden  by  the  Koran  (a  prohibition  occa- 
sionally, but  very  rarely,  infringed),  the  Saracenic  artists, 
whose  instincts  as  decorators  seem  to  have  been  un- 
rivalled, fell  back  upon  geometrical  and  flowing  patterns 
and  inscriptions,  and  upon  the  use  of  tiles  (Fig.  190), 
mosaics,  inlays,  patterns  impressed  on  plaster,  and  every 
possible  device  for  harmoniously  enriching  the  surfaces 
with  which  they  had  to  deal.  Several  of  our  illustrations 
give  indications  of  the  presence  of  these  unrivalled  decora- 
tions in  the  buildings  which  they  represent  (Fig.  195). 
Windows  are  commonly  filled  by  tracery  executed  in 
stone  or  in  plaster,  and  glazed  with  stained  glass ;   and 


Fig.  189.— Mosque   'El  Moted  '  at  Caiko. 


s  2 


260 


MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


many  of  the  open  spaces  in  buildings  are  occupied  by 
grilles,  executed  in  wood,  and  most  effective  and  rich  in 
design. 


Fig.  190.— Arabian  Wall  Dkcoration. 


Syria  and  Palestine. 

Syria  was  one  of  the  countries  earliest  overrun  by  the 
Arab  propaganda,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Caliph 
Omar  as  early  as  a.d.  637.  He  there  built  a  small  mosque, 
though  not  the  one  which  commonly  goes  by  his  name.  Two 
rnosques  of  great  antiquity  and  importance,  but  the  origin 
of  which  is  a  matter  of  dispute  among  authorities,  stand 


SYRIA   AND   PALESTINE. 


261 


in  the  Haram  enclosure  at  Jerusalem.  One  of  these  is 
the  octagonal  building  called  the  Sakhra  (Figs.  191-2), 
known  in  the  Moslem,  world  as  the  Dome  of  the  Kock, 
popularly  called  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  and  occupying,  as 
is  all  but  universally  admitted,  part  of  the  site  of  the 


Fig.  191. — Plan-  of  the  Sakhra  Mosque  at  Jerusalem. 


Temple  itself.  Whether  this  is  a  "nearly  unaltered 
Christian  building  of  the  fourth  century,"  or  a  construc- 
tion of  Abd-el-Malek,  the  second  Caliph,  erected  in  the 
year  688,  has  been  debated  keenly;  but  what  is  beyond 
debate  is  that  this  structure  is  very  Byzantine,  or,  to 
speak  with  more  exactness,  very  like  some  of  the  build- 
ings of  Justinian  in  plan  and  section,  and  that  from 
early  times  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Saracens,  and 
was  regarded  by  them  as  the  next  most  venerable  and 
sacred  spot  in  the  world  after  Mecca.  Much  the  same 
difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
neighbouring  mosque,  El  Aksah,  which  bears  an  un- 
doubted    general    resemblance    to    an    ancient    basilica. 


t'lG.  192. — Section  of  tiie  Sakhka  Mosqce  at  Jerusalem. 


SICILY   AND   SPAIN.  263 

though  having  no  fewer  than  seven  parallel  avenues. 
This  building  has  with  equal  confidence  been  attributed  to 
the  fourth  and  the  seventh  century.  It  is  fortunately 
quite  unnecessary  here  to  do  more  than  point  out  that 
these  mosques,  whatever  their  origin,  were  in  use  at  least 
as  early  as  the  eighth  century,  and  that  the  beautiful 
Dome  of  the  Eock  must  have  exercised  a  great  influence 
on  Mohammedan  art,  and,  notwithstanding  some  differ- 
ences of  plan,  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  the  prototype 
of  many  of  the  domed  mosques  and  tombs  to  which 
allusion  has  been  made.  The  decorations  shown  in  our 
illustration  of  the  Sakhra  are,  it  is  right  to  observe, 
most  of  them  of  a  date  centuries  later  than  the  time 
of  the  original  construction  of  the  building;. 


Sicily  and  Spain. 

The  spread  of  Mohammedan  architecture  westward 
next  claims  our  notice ;  but  want  of  space  will  only 
permit  us  to  mention  a  small  though  interesting  group  of 
Saracenic  buildings  which  still  remains  in  Sicily;  the 
numerous  specimens  of  the  style  which  exist  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa ;  and  the  works  erected  by  the  Saracens 
during  their  long  rule  in  Spain.  The  most  celebrated 
Spanish  example  is  the  fortress  and  palace  of  the  Alham- 
bra,  begun  in  1248,  and  finished  in  1314.  This  building 
(Fig.  188)  has  been  measured,  drawn,  and  fully  illustrated 
in  an  elaborate  monograph  by  our  countryman  Owen 
Jones,  and  has  become  popularly  known  by  the  beautiful 
reproduction  of  portions  of  it  which  he  executed  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  and  of  which  he  wrote  an  admirable  de- 
scription in  his  '  Guide-book  to  the  Alhambra  Court.'  The 
Mohammedan  architecture  of  Spain  is  here  to  be  seen  at 


264 


MOHAMMEDAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


its  best;  most  of  its  features  are  those  of  Arab  art,  but 
with  a  distinguishing  character  (Fig.  193). 


Fig.  193. — Door  WAT  in  the  Alhambka. 

Two  other  well-known  examples  are,  the  Giralda  *  at 

*  '  Gothic  and  Renaissance  Architecture,'  p.  141. 


PERSIA   AND   INDIA.  265 

Seville,  and  the  Mosque  at  Cordova.  The  Giralda  is 
a  square  tower,  in  fact  a  minaret  on  a  magnificent  scale, 
divided  into  panels  and  richly  decorated,  and  shows  a 
masculine  though  beautiful  treatment  wholly  diflferent 
from  that  of  the  minarets  in  Cairo.  The  well-known 
Mosque  at  Cordova  is  of  the  simplest  sort  of  plan,  hut 
of  very  great  extent,  and  contains  no  less  than  nineteen 
parallel  avenues  separated  from  one  another  by  arcades 
at  two  heights  springing  from  850  columns.  The  Kibla 
in  this  mosque  is  a  picturesque  domed  structure  higher 
than  the  rest  of  the  building.  The  columns  employed 
throughout  are  antique  ones  from  other  buildings,  but 
the  whole  effect  of  the  structure,  which  abounds  with 
curiously  cusped  arches  and  coloured  decoration,  is  de- 
scribed as  most  picturesque  and  fantastic. 

Persia  and  India. 

Turning  eastwards,  we  find  in  Turkey,  as  has  been  said, 
a  close  adherence  to  the  forms  of  Byzantine  architecture. 
In  Persia,  where  the  people  are  now  fire-worshippers,  the 
Mohammedan  buildings  are  mostly  ruined,  and  probably 
many  have  disappeared,  but  enough  remains  to  show  that 
mosques  and  palaces  of  great  grandeur  were  built.  Lofty 
doorways  are  a  somewhat  distinctive  feature  of  Persian 
buildings  of  this  style ;  and  the  use  of  coloured  tiles  of 
singular  beauty  for  linings  to  the  walls,  in  the  heads  of 
these  great  portals,  and  in  other  situations  to  which  such 
decoration  is  appropriate,  is  very  common  :  these  decora- 
tions afford  oj)portunity  for  the  Persian  instinct  for  colour, 
probably  the  truest  in  the  whole  world,  to  make  itself  seen. 

In  India  the  wealth  of  material  is  such  that  an  almost 
unlimited  series  of  fine  buildings  could  be  brought 
forward,  were  space  and  illustrations  available.  A  large 
part  of  that  vast  country  became  Mohammedan,  and  in  the 


266  MOHAMMEDAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

buildings  erected  for  mosques  and  tombs  a  complete  blend- 
ing of  the  decorative  forms  in  use  among  Hindu  and  Jaina 
sculptors  with  the  main  lines  of  Mohammedan  art  is 
generally  to  be  found.  The  great  open  quadrangle,  the 
pointed  arch,  the  dome,  the  minaret,  all  appear,  but  they 
are  all  made  out  of  Indian  materials.  Perhaps  not  the 
least  noteworthy  feature  of  mosques  and  tombs  in  India 
is  the  introduction  of  perforated  slabs  of  marble  in  the 
place  of  the  bar-tracery  which  filled  the  heads  of  openings 
in  Cairo  or  Damascus.  These  are  works  of  the  greatest 
and  most  refined  beauty :  sometimes  panels  of  thin  marble* 
each  pierced  with  a  different  pattern,  are  fitted  into  a 
framework  prepared  for  their  reception ;  at  others  we  meet 
with  window-heads  where  upon  a  background  of  twining 
stems  and  leaves  there  grow  up  palms  or  banian-trees, 
their  lithe  branches  and  leaves  wreathed  into  lines  of 
admirable  grace,  and  every  part  standing  out,  owing  to 
the  fine  piercings  of  the  marble,  as  distinctly  as  a  tree 
of  Jesse  on  a  painted  window  in  a  Gothic  cathedral. 

The  dome  at  Bijapur,  a  tomb  larger  than  the  Pantheon 
at  Pome,  and  the  Kutub  at  Delhi,  a  tower  not  unfit  to 
be  compared  with  Giotto's  campanile  at  Florence,  are  con- 
spicuous among  this  series  of  monuments,  and  at  Delhi 
one  of  the  grandest  mosques  in  India  (Fig.  194)  is 
also  to  be  found.  The  series  of  mosques  and  tombs  at 
Ahmedabad,  however,  form  the  most  beautiful  group  of 
buildings  in  India,  and  are  the  only  ones  of  which  a 
complete  series  of  illustrations  has  been  published. 
These  mosques  are  remarkable  for  the  great  skill  with 
which  they  are  roofed  and  lighted.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  a  series  of  domes  raised  on  columns  sufficiently 
above  the  general  level  of  the  stone  ceilings,  which  cover 
the  intervening  spaces,  to  admit  light  under  the  line 
of  their   springing.     The  beauty  of  the  marble  tracery 


268  MOHAMMEDAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

and  surface  decoration  is  very  great.  Pointed  arches 
occur  here  almost  invariably,  and  in  most  cases  the 
outline  of  the  opening  is  very  slightly  turned  upwards 
at  the  apex  so  as  to  give  a  slight  increase  of  emphasis  to 
the  summit  of  the  arch.  The  buildings  are  not  as  a 
rule  lofty;  and  though  plain  walls  and  piers  occur  and 
contrast  well  with  the  arched  features,  pains  have  been 
taken  to  avoid  anything  like  massive  or  heavy  construc- 
tion. Great  extent,  skilful  distribution,  extreme  light- 
ness, and  admirably  combined  groupings  of  the  features . 
and  masses,  are  among  the  fine  qualities  which  lend  to 
Mohammedan  architecture  in  Ahmedabad  a  rare  charm. 

The  religion  and  the  art  of  Islam  seem  destined  to  live 
and  die  together.  Nothing  (with  the  one  exception  of  the 
suggestion  of  the  pointed  arch  to  Western  Europe  at  the 
very  moment  when  Eomanesque  art  was  ripe  for  a  change) 
has  developed  itself  or  appears  likely  to  grow  out  of 
Mohammedan  architecture  in  any  part  of  the  wide  field 
to  which  the  attention  of  the  reader  has  been  directed ; 
and  in  this  respect  the  art  of  the  Mohammedan  is  as  ex- 
clusive, as  intolerant,  and  as  infertile  as  his  religion.  The 
interest  which  it  must  possess  in  the  eyes  of  a  Western 
student  will  rise  less  from  its  own  charms  than  from 
the  fact  that  it  first  employed  the  pointed  arch  —  that 
feature  from  which  sprang  the  glorious  series  of  Western 
Christian  styles  to  which  we  give  the  name  of  Gothic. 
This  arch,  indeed,  appears  to  have  been  discovered  by 
the  very  beginners  of  Mohammedan  architecture,  at  a 
time  when  the  style  was  still  plastic  and  in  course  of 
growth,  and  the  beauty  of  Saracenic  art  is  due  to  no 
small  extent  to  the  use  of  it;  but  in  the  employment 
of  this  feature  the  Western  architect  advanced  much 
further  than  the  Saracen  even  at  his  best  could  go. 
The  pointed  architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  with   its 


PERSIA   AND   IXDIA. 


269 


daring  construction,  its  comprehensive  design,  its  elaborate 
mouldings,  and  its  magnificent  sculptures,  is  far  more 
highly  developed  and  more  beautiful  than  that  of  the 
countries  which  we  have  been  describing,  though  in  its 


Fig.  195. — Entrance  to  a  Moorish  Bazaar. 

treatment  of  the  walls  it  cannot  surpass,  and  indeed  did 
not  often  equal,  the  unrivalled  decoration  of  plane  surfaces 
which  forms  t^ie  chief  glory  of  Mohammedan  art. 


INDEX. 


Abba  YE  aux  Dames,  Caen,  231 

„  Hommes,  Caen,  230 

Abbey,  Westminster,  204 
Agora,  114 
Alhambra,  258,  263 
Amphitheatre  at  Aries,  161 
„  Nimes,  161 

„  Pola,  161 

„  Rome  (CoIossOj  158 

„  Sutri,  148 

„  Verona,  161 

Anthemios  of  Thralles,  Architect,  211 
Appian  Way,  145 

Apollodorus  of  Damascus,  Architect,  155 
Aqueduct  at  Nimes  (Pont  du  Gard).  171 
„        from  Prseneste  to  Rome,  145 
„        at  Rome  (Aqua  Claudia),  171 
„  „      (Anio  Novus),  171 

„        at  Segovia,  171 
„        at  Tarragona,  171 
Arch  at  Autun  (Porte  d'Arroux),  172 
„      Jerusalem  (Golden  Gate),  220 
„      Rome  (of  Constantine),  172 
„  „     (of  the  Goldsmiths),  173 

„     (of  Sept.  Severus),  172 
„  „      (of  Titus),  172 

Treves  (Porta  Nigra),  172 
Asoka,  65 

Baalbek,  ruins  at,  149 
Basilica  at  Rome  (Constantiniana),  155 
„  „      (Emilia),  154 


Basilica  at  Rome  (Julia),  155 
„  „    (Portia),  154 

„  „    (Sempronia),  155 

„  „    (Ulpia),  155 

„         Treves,  155 
Basilica-church  at  Florence  (S.  Mini- 
ato),  209 
„  „  Ravenna  (S.  Apol- 

linare  in  Classe), 
206,  209 
„  „  Rome  (S.  Agnese), 

201 
„  „         Rome(S.Clemente), 

199 
„  „         Rome  (S.  Paul  with- 

out the  walls),  205 
„  „         Rome    (S.  Pietro), 

201 
Baths  of  Agrippa,  162 
„        Caracalla,  162 

Diocletian,  164,  191 
Bharhut,  71 
Birs-i-Nimrud,  45 

Bridge  over  the  Danube  (Trajan's),  170 
„  Tagus  (Hadrian's),  170 

„  Tiber  (Pons  Sublicius), 

170 

Campo  Santo,  Pisa,  209 
Castle  of  S.  Angelo,  174 
Cathedral  at  Canterbury,  233 
„  Durham,  234 


INDEX, 


271 


Cathedral  at  Exeter,  234 
„  Monreale,  249 

Peterborough,  234,  235 
„  Piacenza,  224 

Pisa,  209 
Eocliester,  234 
Rome  (S.  Peter's),  205 
„  Venice  (S.  Mark's),  217 

Winchester,  234 
Chaitya,  67 

Chapel  in  Tower  of  London,  232,  233 
Chehil  Minar,  56 

Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  112 
Church  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  225 

„        Caen  (Abb.  aux  Homines),  230 

„    (Abb.  aux  Dames),  231 

Constantinople  (S.    Sophia), 

211 
Earl's  Barton,  224 
Milan  (S.  Ambrogio),  224 
„         Northampton  (S.Peter's),234 
„         Paris  (Madeleine),  185 

Perigueux  (S.  Front),  218 
Eavenna  (S.Vitale),  208,  215 
„         liome  (S.  Maria  degli  An- 

geli),  164 
,,  „      (S.    Maria   ad   Mar- 

tyres),  166 
Home  (S.  Stefano  Eot.),  208 
„  Toulouse  (S.  Sernin),  227 

„         Turmanin,  Sjria,  221 
„         Verona  (S.  Zenone),  224 
Circus  Maximus,  Eome,  143,  161 
Cloaca  Maxima,  Eome,  141 
Cnidus,  Lion  tomb  at,  110 
Colosseum,  158 

Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  173 
„  Trajan,  173 

Decoration  of  Egyptian  buildings,  37 

Erechtheium,  107 

Forum  of  Nerva,  191 


Gate,  Golden,  at  Jerusalem,  220 
Gate  at  Perugia,  141 
Giralda,  265 

Hall,  S.  George's,  Liverpool,  185 

Ictinus,  Architect,  88 

Isidores  of  Miletus,  Architect,  211 

Keep  at  Colchester,  237 

Hedingham  Castle,  239 
Eochester  Castle,  238 
Tower  of  London,  237,  239 

Kutub,  266 

Lats,  65 

Lotus  Column,  32 

Lysicrates,  Choragic  Monument  of,  112 

Maison  Carree,  Nxmes,  149 

Mammisi,  25 

Manephthah,  24 

Manetho,  15 

Mastaba,  20 

Mausoleum  of  Halicarnassus,  110 

Mosque  at  Ahmedabad,  266 

„        Cairo  (of  Amrou),  254 

„    ("  El  Moyed  "),  258 
„    (of  Ibn  Tulun),  256 
„         Cordova,  265 

Delhi,  266 
„        Jerusalem  (El  Aksah),  261 

(Sakhra),  261 
„        (the  Nilometer),  254 
Mugheyr,  buildings  at,  44 
Mycenae,  Treasury  of  Atreus,  85 
„       Gate  of  the  Lions,  86 

Obelisks,  36 

Pagoda  at  Nankin,  76 

Palace  at  Khorsabad,  46 

„        Eome  (of  the  Cffisars),  174 
„        Spalatro  (of  Diocletian),  174, 
192 


272 


INDEX. 


Pantheon,  164 
Parthenon,  88-91,  99-101 
Persepolis,  buildings  at,  55 
Persian  columns,  57 
Pheidias,  Sculptor,  91 
Pont  du  Gard,  Niraes,  171 
Porta  Nigra,  Treves,  172 
Pylon,  25 
Pyramid  of  Cephren,  1 6 

„         Cheops,  16 

„         Mycerinus,  16 

Bam  Baz,  72 

Bome,  Cloacae  at,  141 

Scopas,  Sculptor  and  Architect,  109, 112 

Silchester,  ruins  at,  143 

Sutri,  i-uins  of  an  amphitheatre,  143 

Temple  at  Athens  (Erechtheium),  107 
„  „      (Parthenon),  88-91, 

99-101 
,,  „    fofJupiter01ym.),149 

Baalbek,  149 

Corinth,  81,  87 
„         Ephesus  (of  Diana),  109 
„         Honan,  75 
„         Ipsamboul,  31 
„         Karli  (Chaitya),  67 
„  Karnak,  26 

„         Lomas  Eishi  cave,  67 
„         Nigope  cave  (Chaitya),  67 
„         Nimes  (Maison  Carree),  149 
„  Orange  (ruins),  157 

„         Pa;stum,  92 
„         Bome  (of  Jupiter    Capito- 

linus),  142 
,,  „      (of  Q.  Metellus  Ma- 

cedouicus),  145 


Temple  at  Bome  (of  Antoninus   and 
Faustina),  147 
„  „       (ofFortunaVir.),  147 

„  „      (of  Vesta),  153 

„  „       (Pantheon  j,  164 

„  Sauchi  (Tope),  67 

„         Tegea  (of  Athena  Alea),  112 
„         Tivoli(of  Vesta),  153 
Temples,  Egyptian,  25 

„         Shinto,  77 
Theatre  of  Balbus,  156 
„      „  Marcellus,  156 
„      „  Mummius,  156 
„     at  Orange,  157 
„     of  Pompey,  156 
Thermae,  see  Baths 
Tomb  at  Ahmedabad,  266 

„    „  Bab-el-Molouk(Belzoni"8),  24 
„     „  Bijapur,  266 
„    „  Castel  d'Asso,  139 
„    of  Cecilia  Metella,  173 
„    „  Cyrus,  54 
„    „  Darius,  59 
„     „  Hadrian,  174 
„    „  Eegulini  Galeassi,  141 
Tombs,  Egyptian,  20 
„       Lycian,  85 
„       Cnidus  (Lion),  110 
Tope  at  Sanchi,  67 
Tower  at  Delhi  (Kutub),  266 

„        Seville  (Giralda),  265 
Treasury  of  Atreus,  85 
Typhonia,  25 

Usertesen  I.,  29 

Wall  of  China,  Great,  76 
Way,  Appian,  145 
Westminster  Abbey,  204 
Wurkha,  ruins  at,  46 


LOKDO^':   FKINTEI)   UV    WILLIAM    CLOWES  AND  SONS,    LUtlTED, 
STAMFOUD   STBEET   AND   CHAEIXG   CKOSS. 


.^ 


^USB^^H 


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CIRC.  AFTER     JAN  2  6  197 

AN  ID  731.2 


Series  9482 


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